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    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
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    • dissection of the fetal pig
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
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    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
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      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
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      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
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      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
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      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
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      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
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      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

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Vocabulary

​Intraspecific competition is when 2 individuals of the same species compete over a desired resource.
  • Interspecific competition is when 2 individuals of two different species compete over a desired resource.
  • Carrying Capacity – The limit of how many organisms the ecosystem can support.
  • Calorie - The energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 mL of water by 1 °C
  • BTU – A BTU it is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit.
  • LC50 - The LC50 is the concentration of a toxic chemical that will kill 50% of the organisms exposed to the toxin.
  • Fecundity - ability to reproduce
  • Mortality - death​
  •  biotic potential - is the maximum possible growth rate under ideal conditions​

Population Growth 

Factors that limit population growth are
1) Limited food
2) Limited space
3) Limited mates
​4) Limited water

Exponential Growth

Picture

  • Exponential growth occurs when a population is placed in an environment that has lots of space and food and other resources.
  • Exponential growth is when a population grows by a FIXED amount.
  •  For example, a growth of 2% per year would be considered exponential.
  • When exponential growth is plotted on a graph (an exponential growth curve) it forms a shape that looks like the letter “J”.

Logistic Growth

Picture

Exponential growth will eventually change to logistic growth as the population grows and resources become scarce!

    • When resources are limited, populations exhibit logistic growth.
    • In logistic growth, population expansion decreases as resources become scarce, leveling off when the carrying capacity of the environment is reached.
    • When logistic growth is plotted on a graph (a logistic growth curve) it forms a shape that looks like the letter “S”

Using a Colorimeter

     We used a colorimeter to measure the % transmittance of several samples. The control should be set to measure 100% transmittance. This means that there are no cells in the vial, so the light is able to pass right through, thus giving a 100% transmittance. The higher the concentration of cells in the vial, the lower the % transmittance would be!

Compound Microscopes

Calculating Magnification

We can calculate the magnification we are observing with the microscope by multiplying the magnification power of the objective, by the magnification power of the eyepieces.

Picture
​ - The magnification of the eyepieces is always 10X. There fore, If you are using the 40X objective, the object you are viewing under the microscope would be magnified 400 times more than with the naked eye. If we do the math, we see that 10X  times 40X equals 400X. ​

Objectives

  • Your lab manual refers to the 4X objective as the "scanning objective". 
  • You lab manual refers to the 10X objective as the "low-powered​objective."
  • You lab manual refers to the 40X objective as the "high-powered​objective." 
Picture

How to Carry the Microscope

Picture
When transporting the microscope, it is very important to make sure that you have a good grip on the scope and carry it with 2 hands at all times.
​
 - One hand should be placed on the base of the scope while the other should be placed on the body (see image).

The scopes are not necessarily heavy, but their center of mass is at the base, making it unstable if supporting by one hand alone. 

Setting Up the Microscope for the First Slide


INSTRUCTIONS: 
  1.  Use the COARSE FOCUS knob to move the stage all the way toward the bottom (base) of the scope (if it is not already there). 
  2. Locate the 4X objective and make sure that that objective is pointing directly down toward the stage.
  3. place slide on the STAGE, securing it under the two metal clips.  
  4. Locate the STAGE ADJUSTMENT knob and notice that this allows you to move the stage right and left and forward and back.
  5.  Now with the stage all the way at the bottom and the 4X objective pointed at the slide, use both eyes to view the slide.  While you continue viewing the slide through the eyepieces, use the COARSE FOCUS knob to slowly move the stage upward (toward the objective) until the slide comes into view. 
​​

​​ You MUST always start with the 4X objective when viewing a new slide. This is to prevent hitting the objective with the stage, and since the field of view is larger at 4X, finding your specimen or object will be much easier. Even seasoned scientists would have a very hard time finding a small object under 40X if they did not start st the 4X first. ​

INCREASING MAGNIFICATION


Only after performing all of the steps (1-14) first and in order, do you want to proceed with the instructions here. Once you have your object fully focused at 4X, make sure the object is directly in the center of our point of view.
  1. YOU WILL NOT USE THE COARSE FOCUS KNOB WITH ANY OBJECTIVE OTHER THAN THE 4X!
  2. The NOSE PIECE is used to rotate the objectives into position.
  3. When using the any objective other than the 4X, You may use the STAGE ADJUSTMENT knobs and the FINE FOCUS knobs only (NOT THE COARSE FOCUS) to center and focus the object at this new magnification.

--- Microscopes have a special property, called "being PARFOCAL" which means that once the object is focus and centered using the 4X, when you switch to the next highest objective, your specimen will be relatively centered and in focus. You should only have to make MINOR adjustments to the FINE FOCUS and the STAGE POSITION, in order to view your object at the higher objective. If you have difficulty, you must go back to 4X and recenter and refocus!

  • The field of view DECREASES as you INCREASE magnification.
  • The amount of light observed through the microscope gets dimmer (is reduced) as you increase magnification.
  • You should notice that the image you see is UP-SIDE-DOWN and REVERSED (the is INVERSION).
  • You should notice that your DEPTH OF FOCUS decreases as magnification INCREASES. ​
  • Images seen through the compound microscope are flipped upside-down and are reversed!

Plant leaves and adaptations

Stomata are cellular pores on the surface of plant leaves (mostly on the underside of the leaf).
STOMATA OPEN TO... They open to allow the uptake of carbon dioxide, the release of oxygen and allow water evaporation from the plant to occur.
STOMATA CLOSE TO... They close to limit water loss.

Picture
Tissue Layers of the Leaf
Picture
Stoma (singular) Stomata (plural)
  • The epidermis consists of the upper and lower epidermis; it aids in the regulation of gas exchange via stomata.
  • The epidermis secretes a waxy substance that lays on top of the leaf and is known as the cuticle. 
  • The cuticle is located outside the epidermis and protects against water loss
  • Palisade cells are plant cells located  right below the upper epidermis and cuticle. THIS IS WHERE PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKES PLACE!
  • The spongy mesophyll cell layer is beneath the pallisades. 

Plant adaptations for Dry Conditions.
     1) thick and waxy leaves. This adaptation helps to reduce the amount of water lost from the leaves. 

Environmental Toxins

The two underlying causes of water pollution are 
  1. Industrialization  
  2. The Human Population Explosion. 
What is LC50?

LC 50 is the concentration of a toxic substance that kills 50% of a population. LC stands for "lethal concentration". The LC50 value is determined by a bioassay. In the bioassay, several vials containing the exact same concetration of cells will be exposed to various concentrations of the toxin. After a period of time, a colorimeter will be used to determine the % mortality and the % of surviving cells by comparing the results to a control vial containing cells that were NOT exposed to the toxin. 
Picture
Toxic chemicals are transferred from one organism to another through the food chain.

Heat Transfer

Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three methods:
     1) conduction - conduction is the method by which heat is transferred between solid objects
                                - conduction - occurs when 2 solid objects come into contact
                                - An example of conduction would be when you put a hot object on a cold object, the                                      heat will be transferred from the hot object to the cold object.
     2) convection -
Convective heat transfer, often referred to simply as convection, is the transfer of                                       heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids.   
    3) radiation - Heat is transferred from a source of waves carrying heat to another substance that                                     will allow the radiation (like sun rays) to pass through. 


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