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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
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      • Introduction to the Nervous System
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      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
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    • Homeostasis - Physio
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
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    • Blood
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    • Case Study One
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      • The Epidermis
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    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
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    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
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    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
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    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
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      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
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      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
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      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
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  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
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      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
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      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

Nervous Tissue

Go to the Nervous System Page

Nervous Tissue

    The nervous system has two major divisions according to location.
  1. The Central Nervous System (CNS)
  2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

  The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord, while all of the other nerves of the body make up the peripheral nervous system.

   The nervous system has two major divisions according to function.
  1. The Somatic Nervous System
  2. The Autonomic Nervous System

   The somatic nervous system is under conscious control and includes 2 divisions:
  1. Sensory
  2. Motor

   The autonomic nervous system in under unconscious control and is in charge of the functions of the glands and internal organs.

via GIPHY

   It is a good thing that our brains take care of a lot of functions in the absence of conscious control.  Could you image how exhausting it would be if you had to remember to breath, to blink and to tell your heart to beat at least once every second?  Not to mention all of the maintenance of blood pressure and digestion you would have to stay on top off mentally or you would quickly be in dire need of medical attention. Our autonomic nervous system takes care of all of the breathing, heart rate, blinking, maintaining blood pressure, digestion and more with us being aware so we can concentrate on other things.... like anatomy class! 
Picture
    The remainder of our discussion will focus on the somatic nervous system which is under conscious awareness or control.
   As mentioned earlier. the somatic nervous system has 2 divisions; 1) sensory and 2) motor. Let's briefly look at these divisions and look at how information flows.
   The primary function of nervous tissue is communication. The sensory division of the somatic nervous system functions to sense the external environment (temperature, pressure, pain, etc.) and the internal environment (hunger, sense of balance and position in space, alertness, etc.) and to communicate that sensory information to the brain. 
   Sensory information about the external and internal environments is obtained by specialized sensory receptor cells (receptors) that will respond to specific sensory stimuli by firing an action potential. For example, photoreceptors in the retina contain a photosensitive molecule (pigment) that responds to light by physically changing its shape (or undergoing a conformational change) which leads to an action potential. Tactile or touch receptors (a type of mechanoreceptor) respond to being deformed or stretched by generating an action potential.

Picture
    We have specialized receptors for the sense of sight, sound, smell, touch, taste, and proprioception (your body's position in space). These receptors respond to their specific stimuli by generating an action potential. But then what? If that information never reaches your brain, you will never be aware that anything was ever sensed. So, now we need to discuss how the information travels from one neuron to another, in order to get the sensory information to the brain for processing.   ​

   The Steps of Neurotransmission

Picture
The abbreviated version of the steps of neurotransmission are as follows:
  1. An action potential reaches the axon terminal.
  2. Synaptic vesicles that are filled with neurotransmitters fuse to the presynaptic membrane which allows the neurotransmitters to move out into the synaptic cleft. 
  3. These neurotransmitters then passively diffuse across the synaptic cleft and then bind to receptors that are located on the postsynaptic membrane (located on the dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron).
  4. When the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor, ion channels open leading to an influx of positive charge.
  5. If there is a sufficient amount of stimulation (positive charge) sensed at the axon hillock, an action potential (in the form of positive charge) is generated.
  6. The action potential travels down the axon toward the axon terminal.
  7. repeat!

Picture
Picture

Labelled Neuron Model

Picture
Structure
Description
Function
Cell Body (Soma)
The neuron has 3 main parts; the cell body, the dendrites and the axon. The cell body houses the nucleus, organelles and cytoplasm of the neuron. 
Cell metabolism, carries out day-to-day functions of the cell. 
Axon
The neuron has 3 main parts; the cell body, the dendrites and the axon.
Transmits (sends) signals from the cell body to the axon terminal in the form an action potential.
Dendrites
Processes that protrude from the cell body like branches. (Dendrite means 'branch').
Receives neurotransmitters (chemical messenger molecules). 
Schwann Cells (Neurolemmocytes)
Schwann cells are the main type of glial cell in the peripheral nervous system. 
 Schwann cells wrap around axons to form the myelin sheath.
Neurolemma
Neurolemma refers to the outer portion of the myelin sheath that contains the cell bodies of the Schwann cells. 
The neurolemma is the outer portion of the myelin sheathe. The myelin sheath provides support for the axon.
Myelin Sheath
The myelin sheath is made up of the plasma membrane of the Schwann cell   (in the peripheral nervous system (PNS)).
The myelin sheath provides support for the axon. 
Node of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath that allows the axon membrane contact to the ions of the extracellular fluid. 
Propagation of the action potential by allowing an influx of sodium ions (positively charged) into the axon to continue the to transmit the signal down to the axon terminal.
Synapse (Synaptic Cleft /Synaptic Space)
The synapse is the space between the neurons (between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron.
During neurotransmission, the presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters (chemicals) into the synaptic cleft, These chemicals passively diffuse to the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron. This triggers a change in the membrane permeability of the postsynaptic cell.
Glial Cells (a.k.a. neuroglia)
 Nervous tissue is composed of glial cells, as well as neurons. The glial cells function like a connective tissue (even though they are not connective tissue). They provide support. There are 4 types of glial cells:
  1. microglia - macrophages of the CNS;
  2. oligodendrocytes - myelinate the axons within the CNS
  3. Schwann cells - myelinate the axons within the PNS
  4. astrocytes - supportive cells 

Histological Examination of Nervous Tissue

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ASTROCYTES

A thin axon arises from an axon hillock.  Both are recognizable by their pale axoplasm, which is pale because basophilic ribosomes are absent from axoplasm.

Cross-Section of Nervous Tissue

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  • The nuclei of the Schwann cells take up a lot of the nuclear stain and appear round and dark purple. 
  • The myelin sheath has a lot of lipids, so it does not stain well. In a cross-section of the nerve, the myelin sheath will appear as a lighter ring around the darker axon.

Longitudinal Sections of Nervous Tissue


  • ​The myelin sheath is the lighter portion surrounding the axon. The outer portion of myelin stains more darkly and is the neurolemma which has the cell bodies of the Schwann cells.  
  • The gaps in the sheath are the Nodes of Ranvier. 
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  • ​Node of Ranvier (NoR) = gap in the myelin sheath that exposes the axon membrane to the extracellular fluid.
  • Axon (a) = the entire length of where it is labeled ‘a’ is the axon.
  • Schwann Cell (SCn) = this is a cell body of a Schwann cell. Schwann cells make up the myelin sheath that surrounds the axon. The outermost portion of the myelin sheath that contains the cell bodies of the Schwann cells, is called the neurolemma.
  • M = myelin sheath
  • N = neurolemma

Cross-Section of Spinal Cord

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The Meninges

   You have 3 membranes covering your brain and spinal cord. The word 'meninges' comes from the Greek word for 'membrane. The innermost layer is the pia mater, the intermediate layer is the arachnoid mater and the most superficial layer is the dura mater. Cerebrospinal fluid lies in the subarachnoid space which lies between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The primary function of the meninges is to protect the central nervous system.
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Diagram of Meninges of Brain

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