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      • VOLCANO LAB
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    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
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    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
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    • GROWTH CURVES
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    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
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    • buffers
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    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
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    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
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  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
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      • The Integumentary System
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      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
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    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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      • THE HEART
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    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
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    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
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  • CMC Physiology Lab
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    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
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      • The Epidermis
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    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
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    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
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      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
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      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
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      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures

Prokaryotic Organisms

    Before the invention of the electron microscope, cells were generally classified as either plant cells or animal cells. The reason for this, is that plant and animal cells are relatively large eukaryotic cells that could be easily seen using the magnifying power of the compound light microscope. As science and technology continued to advance, smaller cells were discovered. These included protists, fungi and bacteria. 
   

Picture

    The invention of electron microscopy, ushered in a new age of microbiology.  With the ability to peer into even the tiniest prokaryotic cells, scientists were able to make comparisons between different cells and different life forms like never before. ​

Picture
Picture
Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes    After the invention of the electron microscope, it soon became clear that bacteria (and much later, archaea) are indeed cells, similar to the plant and animal cells already known at the time. However, there were fundamental differences between these bacteria cells and the eukaryotic cells, which include the cells of plants, fungi, algae and animals. 
   

Classifications of the 1800's

     IN THE BEGINNING.... all life forms were thought to be either plants or animals. Accordingly, in the 1700's, Carolus Linnaeus designed 2 kingdoms into which all known organisms could be categorized. These 2 kingdoms were...
  1. Vegetalia, and
  2. Animalia. 
Picture

Classifications of the 1800's

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   As microorganisms were discovered and studied by the pioneers of microbiology, it soon became clear that the "two-kingdom" system could not accommodate these new single-celled life-forms. Ernst Haeckel combined these tiny microorganisms into a separate third kingdom, called the Protista. 
Picture
   As the field of microscopy continued to advance with increasingly more powerful light microscopes, and eventually the electron microscope, the differences between bacteria and other microorganisms became more clear. 
The 5 kingdom system was in place for while as one of the more successful classifications of the 20th century. 

    Then... There Were 3

   In 1977, evolutionary biologist Carl Woese, discovered a new type of cell that existed as a single-celled organism. Carl Woese made this discovery during his work comparing the nucleotide sequences of different types of cells, to uncover phylogenic relationships. 

Phylogeny is a diagrammatic hypothesis (giving us our phylogenic tree) about the history of the evolutionary relationships of a group of organisms, based on DNA evidence, morphological and physiological characteristics. 

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The English Spelling for Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic is "Eucaryotic" and "Procaryotic"
    The nucleotide sequences that Carl Woese examined were those that formed the gene that codes for the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which forms the small ribosomal subunit. Woese's work not only found a fundamental difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells, but he also found that prokaryotic cells were divided into 2 distinct groups possessing unique morphological and physiological characteristics. ​​
Picture
Picture
Small subunit ribosomal RNA, 5' domain taken from the Rfam database. This example is RF00177
   Bacteria cells were known at the time, but there was another type of cell that was distinctly unique from both the eukaryotic cells and the bacteria cells. Carl Woese originally called this newly discovered group of single-celled organisms archaebacteria, which translates to "ancient bacteria". There was a campaign to change the taxonomic structure of the day to include a third domain for the archaebacteria.   

Taxonomy the word taxonomy comes from the Greeks words meaning "method" and "arrangement".  It is the science of categorizing, defining and naming groups of organisms based on common genetic, morphological, and/or physiological characteristics. 

Picture
Picture
Bacteria
Picture
Archaea
    Following the initial discovery of different ribosomal subunit found in archaeal cells, more differences were soon discovered as well.  These discoveries confirmed that these cells were indeed in a category ALL THEIR OWN! Some of these differences include...
  1. differences in cell wall composition
  2. differences in lipids that form the cell membrane
  3. differences in sensitivities to antibiotics
  4. lipids, and sensitivity

   Eventually, in light of the overwhelming scientific evidence, the taxonomic structure was finally reorganized into the 3-domain system we know today. To further distinguish the archaebacteria as a separate domain from bacteria, the name was changed to simply, "archaea". 
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Comparisons

   ​Archaea have the same general appearance as bacteria, but upon further examination, archaeal cells have more in common with eukaryotic cells than bacteria cells. Despite their differences, all of the organisms in both the domain bacteria and the domain archaea are entirely made up of prokaryotic organisms. The names given to the two cell types derive from Greek words: ProKaryotic = ‘before nucleus’ EuKaryotic = ‘true nucleus’
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Prokaryotic Cell
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Most bacterial cells contain a single, circular chromosome that exists in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm.
Eukaryotic Cell
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Eukaryotic cells contain multiple linear chromosomes that are housed within the nucleus of the cell.

Compartmentalization

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   Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized. They have a nucleus which is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain many membrane-bound organelles.
​
   Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, nor do they have membrane-bound organelles. ​

The Cell Membrane of Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells

    The cell theory states the following:
all life is composed of one or more cells
cells arise from other cells
 ​The cell membrane protects the cell by creating a barrier between what is inside the cell and what is outside the cell. 

  The structure of the cell membrane in bacteria cells and eukaryotic cells is very similar.  

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   The cell membrane in eukaryotic cells and bacteria cell is made up of a double layer of phospholipids. Proteins, sugars and lipids are also incorporated into the cell membrane. 

   The fatty acid tails orient themselves toward each other, to get away from the water.  This provides a barrier between the inside of the cell and the outside of the cell. 
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  The components of phospholipids include  2 hydrophobic fatty acid tails and a hydrophilic head. The tails consists of UNBRANCHED fatty acid chains that consist of hydrocarbons (H-C). The fatty acids give a hydrophobic barrier that orients itself away from the intracellular fluid and the extracellular fluid. 
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Phospholipids spontaneously form lipid bilayers in any aqueous environment due this amphipathic nature of lipid molecules.
  The hydrophilic heads are in contact with the inner and outer liquid medium. The hydrophilic heads consist of choline, phosphate, and glycerol. 
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Comparing the Phospholipids of
​Archaea to Bacteria Cells

   The type of fatty acids found in the phospholipids of bacteria and eukaryotic cells are UNBRANCHED fatty acid chains.​

   The phosphate groups of the phospholipids in bacteria and eukaryotic cells are bonded to the fatty acid chains using ESTER BONDS. 
​   In contrast, the phospholipids in archaeal cells contain BRANCHED ISOPRENE CHAINS instead of the unbranched fatty acid chains we see in bacteria and eukaryotic cells. In archaeal cells, the phospholipids contain ether bonds instead of ester bonds. 
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    Archaea are extremely diverse and have adapted to many extreme habitats. Some forms have evolved to survive off of odd forms of nutrition such as sulfur and cyanide. Many members of the Archaea are found in extreme environments and are called "extremophiles". Some species of archaea can be found inside glacial ice in freezing temperatures. Others are found in deep-sea thermal vents feasting on sulfur bubbling up from the Earth, in a habitat where sunlight never reaches. Some species called thermophiles love the heat and are able to grow at temperatures well over 100 ◦C, that would boil water. There are examples of archaeal organisms that can survive or even prefer extreme levels of salinity, pH, or pressure. 

The Cell Wall

Peptidoglycan (cell wall) Provides bacterial shape and rigidity. The cell wall consists of alternating units of N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid. The polysaccharide chains are cross-linked by a peptide bridge. It is a primary target of antimicrobial therapy – because it is specific to prokaryotes. 

BACTERIA

If they have a cell wall, it will contain some amount (either thick or thin) of peptidoglycan.

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​Slime (extracellular polysaccharide): This is extracellular material, loosely associated with the bacteria, that is elaborated by some bacterial species that facilitates colonization of smooth, prosthetic surfaces such as intravascular catheters. Binary Fission MID 1 2) 
Capsule: This polysaccharide outer coating of the bacterial surface often plays a role in preventing phagocytosis of bacteria.


ARCHAEA

Like bacteria, archaeans have no internal membranes and their DNA exists as a single loop.

As with other living things, archaeal cells have an outer cell membrane that serves as a barrier between the cell and its environment. Within the membrane is the cytoplasm, where the living functions of the archeon take place and where the DNA is located. Around the outside of nearly all archaeal cells is a cell wall, a semi-rigid layer that helps the cell maintain its shape and chemical equilibrium. All three of these regions may be distinguished in the cells of bacteria and most other living things, but when you take a closer look at each region, you find that the similarities are merely structural, not chemical.
In other words, Archaea build the same structures as other organisms, but they build them from different chemical components. For instance, the cell walls of all bacteria contain the chemical peptidoglycan. Archaeal cell walls do not contain this compound, though some species contain a similar one. Likewise, archaea do not produce walls of cellulose (as do plants) or chitin (as do fungi). The cell wall of archaeans is chemically distinct.



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