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    • Anatomy Basics
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    • Case Study One
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    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
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    • Fertility and Conception
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    • fetal development
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  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
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    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
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    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
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    • Biomes
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    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
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    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
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  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
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    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
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    • The Cell Cycle
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    • Mitosis
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  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
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      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
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      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
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    • A History of Human Biology
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    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
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  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
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    • The Appendicular Skeleton
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  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
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    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
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    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
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    • WET MOUNT
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    • Blood Agar
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    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
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    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
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  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
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  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
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    • Anatomy Basics
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    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
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      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

BIOFILMS

    Despite the simplistic,  and rather humble, appearance of prokaryotic cells, they are quite sophisticated and well-equipped to maintain homeostasis despite changes in their external environment. All living organisms, even tiny prokaryotic lifeforms, must adjust to changes in temperature, sunlight, pH, salinity, osmotic pressure or toxic substances in their environment. Failure to do so can lead to death or other serious consequences for the organism. ​

Maintaining Homeostasis

   In conditions of low light, certain photosynthetic microorganisms can increase their production of chlorophyll to make better use of the limited sunlight available. Some bacteria even exhibit sophisticated defense response against antibiotics! Bacteria can secrete antibiotic-killing compounds that function to break down the cell wall or cell membrane of the antibiotic. 
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  We also observe cooperation between bacteria cells that form a biofilm. 
Very few bacteria are live independently. 99% of bacteria live as part of a larger entity called a "biofilm". Biofilms are of special interest, because they display many of the characteristics of multicellular organisms. The cells communicate to each other through chemical signaling and even become physically attached to each other and to a surface using interlacing polymers they the cells secrete. ​
Picture
  1. Stage 1: Initial Attachment. A free-floating bacteria reversibly attaches to a surface. 
  2. Stage 2: Irreversible Attachment. The small colony irreversibly anchors itself to the surface through the cell adhesion molecules and polysaccharides they secrete. 
  3. Stage 3: Maturation I. The adhesion site get more complex and diverse and cell division begins along with cell recruitment.
  4. Stage 4: Maturation II. The biofilm has reach full maturity. The matrix envelopes the biofilm an provides protection from harmful elements including antibiotics. 
  5. Stage 5: Dispersion. Occasionally, single cells will be released from the biofilm during cell division. These cells will be dispersed and will be able to form to biofilms. 

Quorum Sensing

   Bacteria cells function very differently when they are together with other cells.  The bacteria cells can sense ( hence ... "quorum sensing")  the density of the population that they are a part of.  As the population density increases, the bacteria cells respond by changing their gene expression. 
     For example, bacteria cells that are part of a high-density population, such as a biofilm, will change their phenotype to fit whatever the needs of the biofilm as a whole are at that time. WOW! 
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Prokaryotic Organisms

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    Before the invention of the electron microscope, cells were generally classified as either plant cells or animal cells. The reason for this, is that plant and animal cells are relatively large eukaryotic cells that could be easily seen using the magnifying power of the compound light microscope. As science and technology continued to advance, smaller cells were discovered. These included protists, fungi and bacteria. 
   

    The invention of electron microscopy, ushered in a new age of microbiology.  With the ability to peer into even the tiniest prokaryotic cells, scientists were able to make comparisons between different cells and different life forms like never before. ​

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    Then... There Were 3

   In 1977, evolutionary biologist Carl Woese, discovered a new type of cell that existed as a single-celled organism. Carl Woese made this discovery during his work comparing the nucleotide sequences of different types of cells, to uncover phylogenic relationships. 
    The nucleotide sequences that Carl Woese examined were those that formed the gene that codes for the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which forms the small ribosomal subunit. Woese's work not only found a fundamental difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells, but he also found that prokaryotic cells were divided into 2 distinct groups possessing unique morphological and physiological characteristics. ​​
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Small subunit ribosomal RNA, 5' domain taken from the Rfam database. This example is RF00177
   Bacteria cells were known at the time, but there was another type of cell that was distinctly unique from both the eukaryotic cells and the bacteria cells. Carl Woese originally called this newly discovered group of single-celled organisms archaebacteria, which translates to "ancient bacteria". There was a campaign to change the taxonomic structure of the day to include a third domain for the archaebacteria.   
   

Phylogeny is a diagrammatic hypothesis (giving us our phylogenic tree) about the history of the evolutionary relationships of a group of organisms, based on DNA evidence, morphological and physiological characteristics. 

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The English Spelling for Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic is "Eucaryotic" and "Procaryotic"

Taxonomy the word taxonomy comes from the Greeks words meaning "method" and "arrangement".  It is the science of categorizing, defining and naming groups of organisms based on common genetic, morphological, and/or physiological characteristics. 

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Bacteria
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Archaea
    Following the initial discovery of disparity in the small ribosomal subunit of archeabacterial cells (now called archaeal cells), more differences were soon elucidated, confirming the uniqueness of the organisms belonging to this new category. Some of these differences include...
  1. differences in cell wall composition
  2. differences in lipids that form the cell membrane
  3. differences in sensitivities to antibiotics
  4. lipids, and sensitivity

   Eventually, in light of the overwhelming scientific evidence, the taxonomic structure was finally reorganized into the 3-domain system we know today. To further distinguish the archaebacteria as a separate domain from bacteria, the name was changed to simply, "archaea". 
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Nomenclature

​    There are a multitude of life forms on our planet. New species are being discovered all of the time. The convenience of categorization, is that it assists us in communicating.  Could you image having to explain an organism to someone who has never seen it before without using categories?  Supposed this person wanted specific information about how the organisms metabolizes or reproduces. When we can employ the use of categories, if I describe an organism to someone and I mention that it is a "plant", this gives the listener a lot of great information about that organism from the use of just a single simple word! Cool!
    Species are assigned a scientific name (or binomial name or Latin name) according to their classification. These names are composed two words. The first word is the genus and the second word is the specific epithet. The genus and epithet together define the species. The epithet, in this context, is defined broadly an adjective expressing a quality or attribute of the organism. The names are typically odd-sounding and tongue-twisting and are often derived from Latin. Occasionally a species will be named in honor who discovered it, or the location in which it was discovered. ​
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   Nomenclature Examples

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Escherichia coli

  • Escherichia coli was named after Theodore Escherich who first identified the common bacteria in stool. 

  • Neisseria gonorrhoeae was named after Albert Neisser who first discovered it. 
​Some names are derived from the Latin terms that relate to their shape or physical appearance.
  • Vibrio cholerae was named "vibrio" which means “comma-shaped,” because it resembles the shape of a comma.
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​Vibrio cholerae
  • Staphylococcus aureus received its name from the Latin words "staphylo-", which means "clusters" and "coccus", which means "round", due to its appearance that somewhat resembles clusters of round grapes. 
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Neisseria gonorrhoeae
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Staphylococcus aureus
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Other names can be based on the physiological or chemical attributes or the organism. For example, 
  • Saccharomyces cerevisiae got its name, because it was first observed in yeast cells, which were commonly used for fermentation. The name was assigned by Theodor Schwann in 1837. The word Saccharomyces comes from the Latin words "saccharo" meaning “sugar”, and "myce" which means “fungus”. Yeast is a single-celled fungus that converts sugars into alcohol through the process of alcoholic fermentation. The word "cerevisiae" is derived from the Latin word "cerevisia", which means “beer”. 

​     Even though it is common to see the scientific names written in many different formats, there are actually only a couple of acceptable formats in which they should be written. The genus should be capitalized and italicized, whereas the epithet name is not capitalized but is also italicized. The genus name can either be written out fully, as in Escherichia coli, or it may be abbreviated, as in E. coli.  Alternatively, the scientific name may be underlined instead of italicized. For example, Escherichia coli and E. coli, are also acceptable formats. 

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