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    • Anatomy Basics
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
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    • Case Study One
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    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
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    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
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    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
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  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
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  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
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      • Module 1 Assignments
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    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
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    • Biomes
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    • Evolution - Our Beginning
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  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
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    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
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    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
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  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
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      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
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      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
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      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
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      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
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  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
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    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
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  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
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  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
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    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
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    • Final Exam Study Guide
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      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
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    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
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    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
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  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
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  • Anatomy
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      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
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    • Anatomy Basics
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      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
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      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
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    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
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    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
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  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

Evolution


Evolution: How Populations Change over Time


Evolution – the genetic change in a species over time ​

 Evolution – the genetic change in a species over time 
​

     We begin by looking at the recent evolution in humans. Evolution is very much still happening today — and it's happening to us, right here, right now. Our genes constantly change over time thanks to the power of selection.
Picture

Recent Evolution in Humans

Case 1:   Drinking milk as adults

    Milk and dairy products like ice-cream yogurt, cheese and butter contains lactose. Lactose is a sugar found in milk and milk-based (dairy) products. Lactase is an enzyme that functions to breakdown (metabolize) lactose in the body.
​
  1. All mammals (besides humans) stop producing lactase after weaning (when the offspring no longer drinks its mother's milk
  2. This means that they would no longer be able to digest milk when they get older.
  3. Scientists have discovered a mutation that first appeared on the plains of Hungary about 7,500 years ago, that allowed some humans to digest milk into adulthood. 

   The ability to digest protein-rich, calorie-dense, dairy products was a definite evolutionary advantage. We still see evidence of this genetic change today, because as many as 75% of humans still have some level of lactose intolerance. 
Picture
Picture

 Disease Resistance

Case 2: Sickle - Cell Anemia

Picture
  1.  Sickle-Cell Anemia prevents Malaria.
  2. The genetic mutation that causes Sickle-Cell Anemia is the same genetic mutation that prevents the Malaria Virus from invading the cells. 
  3.  Sickle-Cell Anemia is most common in people of African descent (7%), and other areas where malaria is prevalent. 
Picture
PictureA Farming Tool called a Sickle
​     Sickle-Cell Anemia is a condition caused by a genetic mutation that leads to misshapen red blood cells that look like a "sickle", hence the name.
​     These abnormal red blood cells are impaired in their ability to deliver oxygen to cells and have a shorter life-span.
    Patients with Sickle-Cell Anemia experience excessive bleeding upon injury which, in severe cases, can lead to death. This excessive bleeding is due to the condition that prevents the normal clotting action of the blood. 
     Other symptoms of Sickle-Cell Anemia are experiences when these misshapen red blood cells simply get 'stuck' inside blood vessels. These symptoms include pain, lethargy, shortness of breath, dizziness, headaches, or coldness in the hands and feet.    

MALARIA
Malaria is a life-threatening mosquito-borne blood disease caused by a Plasmodium parasite. ... Once an infected mosquito bites a human, the parasites multiply in the host's liver before infecting and destroying red blood cells.

 Case 3:  HIV Infection

Picture
     Several teams of scientists around the world have gathered compelling evidence that links today's individuals that are immune to HIV infection to the survivors of the Black Plague.
     Evidence suggests that these HIV-immune people are descendants of the survivors of the of the Bubonic Plague (also referred to as the Black Death) that swept through Europe in the Middle Ages. This genetic mutation (known as CCR5-Ä32) prevents the virus from entering the cells . ​The mutation occurs on the gene for a. about 10% of Europeans have a genetic mutation that protects them from HIV infection.
              
CCR5 is a type of receptor that exists on the surface of white blood cells,. Under normal conditions, the receptor functions to receive chemical signals from the tissues and organs of the body. The white blood cells use this information to survey the health of the body and look for signs of infection. The HIV virus exploits the CCR5 receptors and is able to bind to the receptors and enter the cells. HIV-immune individuals carry a mutated form of the CCR5 receptor which prevents the HIV virus from binding to it, which prevents the virus from infecting cells.

Case 4: Blue Eyes - a Mutation

Picture
  1. New research shows that people with blue eyes have a single, common ancestor. 
  2. Scientists have tracked down a genetic mutation which took place 6,000-10,000 years ago and is the cause of the eye color of all blue-eyed people.
  3. Originally, everyone had brown eyes,. There was a genetic mutation in the OCA2 gene that adds melanin (pigmentation) to our eyes, that essentially turned the gene off. This caused a decrease in the melanin of the eye, thus turning blue.
  4. Green-eyed people have less melanin than brown eyes, but more that blue-eyes. 
         

Case 5:  Mutation for Breathing at High Altitudes

     Indigenous Tibetans, who live at altitudes above 10,000 feet in the Himalayan highlands, have blood that produces more of the oxygen-transporting hemoglobin protein. ​
Picture

via GIPHY

Case 6:  Wisdom Teeth

  1.  25 % of humans today are born without wisdom teeth. 
  2. A few thousand years ago, a mutation popped up that prevented wisdom teeth from growing at all. 
  3. Humans stopped needing wisdom teeth after humans begin cooking food and developed agriculture thousands of years ago.
  4. This switch to softer foods, decreased the size of our jaw muscles.
  5. Cave men would wear out their molars and have room for the wisdom teeth to replace the.
  6. Most people don’t have room for them.

Case 7:  The Appendix

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Picture
  Our appendix was used to secrete digestive enzymes that were needed to break-down our previous diet of cellulose-rich plants. Now it is thought to harbor probiotics or bacteria. Many people in the U.S. each year get a bacterial infection in their appendix, a condition called appendicitis, which requires that the organ be surgically removed from the body. Patients recover and are able to live without the appendix just fine. 

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Case 8:  Arrector Pili (goose bumps)

   Goose bumps really serve no purpose to modern humans, but when we were much harrier, they probably served the same function that the arrector pili serve in other mammals.
   The pili contract involuntarily when the mammal is either cold or feels threatened. This acts to keep the animal warm and to increase the size of its appearance to ward off danger. 
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Picture

Case 9:  ​ Vestigial Tails ​

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     All humans develop a tail in early fetal development. However, for most of us, this tail regresses in the fetus around 8 weeks. A "true humans tail" has connective tissue, muscle tissue, nerves, and even blood vessels. 

   
Your coccyx, better known as your tailbone, is the very last part of your vertebrae, and is the remnant of a lost tail. We all have a tail bone. Most people know that. But did you know that you also carry genes that encode for a tail too?  In the vast majority of people, these genes are essentially turned off by epigenetic factors. These genes, on occasion get "turned back on" and we get babies born with a tail-like appendage. Usually surgery is performed in infancy to remove the unneeded tail. 

Natural Selection

The genetically inherited trait that increases the survival of that species would persist through the process of evolution by NATURAL SELECTION. The genetic trait that evolves from this process increases the probability that the species will survive in that particular environment is called an ADAPTATION.

The Peppered Moth. ​

​A classic example of natural selection 

   The evolution of the peppered moth is a classical example of evolution due to natural selection. These moth's resided in London in the 1800's during the Industrial Revolution. 

​   At the beginning of the 1800's there were more light-colored Peppered Moths than dark-colored Peppered Moths. These moths would rest upon trees with white bark. The dark-colored moths were easier to spot against the light backdrop of the white tree bark and consequently were eaten more often by hungry predatory birds. The light-colored Peppered Moths camouflaged against the light-colored trees and were much more prevalent in the population. 
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   By the end of the 1800's the light-colored trees became dark to the extensive pollution (soot deposits), causing most of the light-colored moths to be more visible to predators and, therefore, This caused a shift in the population of moths in which dark-colored moths became more common. ​
Evolution by natural selection results from four natural conditions:​

#1 High reproductive capacity. Each species produces more offspring than will survive to maturity. We only see the effects of natural Selection if some of the offspring survive to adulthood (breeding age) and some don't. 

#2 Heritable variation. The individuals in a population exhibit variation that is genetically inherited. Some traits improve the chances of an individual’s survival and reproductive success. The variation necessary for evolution by natural selection must be inherited so that it can be passed to offspring.

#3 Limits on population growth, or a struggle for existence. Only so much food, water, light, growing space, and so on are available to a population, and organisms compete with one another for the limited resources available to them. Other limits on population growth include predators and diseases.

#4 Differential reproductive success. Reproduction is the key to natural selection: The best-adapted individuals reproduce most successfully, whereas less fit individuals die prematurely or produce fewer or less viable offspring.

WATCH THE VIDEO

 Blind Cave Fish - example of evolution and adaptation - use it or lose it

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​The blind cave fish is a great example of USE IT OR LOSE IT evolution. The blind cave fish is so named because of its lack of eyes! Hundreds of generations of fish ago, a fish, or group of fish,  swam into the deep dark caves of Mexico. This could have been in search of food or to escape predators, or even both. The fish thrived in the new, dark environment and continued to live there in the darkness generation after generation. Over time, these fish stopped developing eyes. The energy that the fish would usually have had to spend creating the anatomy needed for sight, as well as for processing visual information,  was now able to be reallocated to more useful functions. These fish also developed a type of sonar to assist their navigation in the dark, as well as other heightened senses. ​



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