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    • Anatomy Basics
      • Intro to Anatomy
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      • Levels of Organization
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      • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
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      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
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      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
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    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
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    • Respiratory System Physiology
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  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
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      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
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        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
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    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
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  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
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  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
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  • Anatomy
    • Anatomy - CMC Home Page
      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
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      • Lab Quiz 4
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    • Anatomy Basics
      • Intro to Anatomy
      • Medical Terminology
      • A History of Anatomy
      • Levels of Organization
      • Anatomical Positions
      • Anatomical Planes
      • Anatomical Regions
      • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

Digestion and Enzymes Lab

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    Our GI tract is a long anatomical tube where secretions of chemicals and enzymes help us safely break down foods that we ingest.
 We use the GI tract to break down polysaccharides, proteins, fats, and nucleic acids into small units to prepare for absorption of these building blocks (nutrients). 

​
Four of the enzymes have special importance in digestion of food by humans.
  • Amylase from our salivary glands and pancreas digests starch to maltose in our mouth and small intestine.
  • Lipase from the pancreas digests lipids to fatty acids and glycerol in our small intestine.
  • Pepsin is a protease that begins digestion of proteins, breaking them into peptides and amino acids. Pepsinogen, is secreted by gastric glands of the stomach into the stomach. There, in the acid environment of the stomach, pepsinogen is converted into pepsin.
  • Trypsin is a protease secreted into the small intestine by the pancreas. As pepsin, trypsin digests proteins into peptides and amino acids and is made and secreted in an inactive form, trypsinogen.

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​The four biological macromolecules that are important for biological functions are:
  • Carbohydrates
  • Proteins
  • Fats​
  • Nucleic Acids

Enzymes

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   What are ENZYMES? All molecular bonds have energy barriers that must be overcome in order for the chemical reaction to occur. Enzymes cause these chemical reactions to go much faster (by several orders of magnitude) by lowering the “activation energy” of the reaction. Without enzymes, it could take decades to digest one hamburger!
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Energy of Activation (EA)
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Properties of Enzymes
Enzymes are...
  • proteins
  • catalysts that lower the activation energy of a reaction
  • highly specific
  • increase the rate of a chemical reaction
  • re-usable / not consumed in the reaction
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Picture

Environmental conditions affect enzymes:
Temperature
pH

​
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 We need to have a good understanding of enzymes to understand how mechanically and chemically we digest biological macromolecules. We will learn about three main enzymatic concepts: how the presence of enzymes allows us to digest foods at a faster rate, how optimal environmental factors (specifically pH and temperature) affect the rate of enzymatic digestion, how increased surface area increases chemical digestion, and how amphipathic molecules help us digest fats.

Our bodies function best in ideal conditions: ideal pH, concentration, temperature, etc. In today’s lab we will test for factors that affect carbohydrate digestion, protein digestion, and fat digestion. We will also run tests to learn how surface area affects the rate of digestion. We will use chemical indicators to test for the presence of polymers (before chemical digestion) and monomers (after chemical digestion).



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Carbohydrate Digestion

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 Lab Exercise:  A. Carbohydrate Digestion in the Mouth 

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 In this experiment you will investigate the hydrolysis of starch to maltose by salivary amylase. You will need to be able to identify the presence of starch and maltose, (the breakdown product of starch), to determine to what extent the enzymatic activity has occurred. Thus controls must be prepared to provide a known standard against which comparisons can be made. Starch decreases and sugar (maltose) increases as hydrolysis occurs, according to the following formula: amylase Starch + water --> maltose 
   Carbohydrate digestion mainly occurs in the mouth and the small intestine. AMYLASE is the enzyme responsible for breaking down polysaccharides or complex carbohydrates such as STARCH (AMYLOSE) into monosaccharides (GLUCOSE).
Amylase is found in saliva and pancreatic juice.  
When complex carbohydrates, like starch (amylose) are placed in the mouth, an enzyme called amylase which is found in the saliva begins to break down this large polysaccharide into smaller components (maltose). ​
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Protocol
  • 1. Turn on the water bath and set it to 37 ºC.
  • 2. Begin to boil a beaker of water on top of the hot plate. DO NOT LEAVE THE HOT PLATE ALONE WHEN HOT. DO NOT TOUCH HOT BEAKERS.
  • Obtain 4 test tubes and label them with a wax pen as follows:
    • W1 (negative control)
    • W2 (negative control)
    • S1
    • S2
  • 4. Add 1mL of DI water into the test tube labeled W1. 
    • Then add 1mL of DI water into the test tube labeled W2. 
  • 5. Have a volunteer add approximately 1mL of human saliva to the test tubes labeled S1 and S2 by spitting directly into the test tubes until the tube contains about 1mL of saliva. 
  • 6. Add 2mL of starch solution to each test tube (W1, W2, S1, S2). Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. 
  • 7. Incubate all the test tubes in the 37 ºC water bath for 30 minutes. 
  • 8. Remove all the test tubes from the water bath. 
  • ​9. Add 5 drops of iodine indicator (IKI or Lugol's Reagent) into the test tubes labeled W1 and S1. Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. Determine the Iodine reagent results.

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Iodine indicator (IKI or Lugol's Reagent) detects the presence of STARCH (not glucose). Iodine indicator is yellow in color. If a solution turns...

BLACK = NO DIGESTION OCCURRED / STARCH IS STILL PRESENT


BROWN = PARTIAL DIGESTION OCCURRED / SOME STARCH IS STILL PRESENT

YELLOW/TAN = DIGESTION OCCURRED / NO STARCH IS PRESENT

Iodine indicator (IKI or Lugol's Reagent) RESULTS

  • If starch is present, the mixture will change from its original yellowish color to a blue-black color. This color change indicates the presence of starch. his sample would be POSITIVE for STARCH, indicating COMPLETE DIGESTION.
  • If starch is not present, the mixture will NOT change from its original yellowish color. This sample would be NEGATIVE for STARCH, indicating PARTIAL or INCOMPLETE DIGESTION.
  • If starch is present is small quantities, the mixture will change from its original yellowish color to a brown or darker tan color. This sample would be POSITIVE for STARCH, indicating PARTIAL or INCOMPLETE DIGESTION.
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YELLOW/TAN = DIGESTION OCCURRED / NO STARCH IS ​PRESENT

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BROWN = PARTIAL DIGESTION OCCURRED / SOME STARCH IS STILL PRESENT

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BLACK = NO DIGESTION OCCURRED / STARCH IS STILL PRESENT

  • ​10. Add 2mL of Benedict’s Reagent into the test tubes labeled W2 and S2. Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. 
  • 11. Remove the parafilm and attach a test tube holder to each test tube. 
  • 12. Use the test tube holder to place the test tubes labeled W2 and S2 into the boiling water bath (do not let the test tube touch the bottom of the water bath). Incubate them for 5 minutes or until you see a color change. Determine the Benedict’s reagent results.​
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Benedict's Reagent Test for the Presence of SIMPLE SUGARS (monosaccharides and disaccharides)

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  • 13. Determine if salivary amylase digested starch. How effect was saliva as digesting starch: was it complete or incomplete digestion based on the color?  HINT:  DEEP ORANGE OR RED WOULD INDICATE COMPLETE DIGESTION!
  • 14. Clean-up: Dispose of parafilm in regular trash. Dispose of all liquids in the chemical waste container near a sink. Place the test tubes in the test tube collection bucket. Rinse and wash all serological pipets and graduated cylinders. Turn off and unplug your hot plate.

Protein Digestion

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B. Protein (Albumin) Digestion in the Stomach

Protein Digestion is a Two-Step Process
STEP ONE: Break peptide bonds of proteins to yield smaller polypeptides. HCL in stomach first denatures the proteins to enhance chemical digestion by exposing peptide bonds.
Enzymes break peptide bonds between amino acids of proteins to make smaller polypeptides
  • In stomach: pepsin (from pepsinogen from the stomach’s chief cells)
  • In intestine: pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, elastase, chymotrypsin & carboxypeptidase)
 
STEP TWO: break small polypeptides into single amino acids. 
Enzymes:
  • In the small intestines peptidases break down the polypeptides into single amino acids
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​Protein digestion mainly occurs in the small intestine. Amino acids are bound together using peptide bonds to form protein (polypeptide). The enzymes responsible for breaking down protein are called proteases (for example pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin), which are secreted in the stomach and small intestine. In today’s lab you will determine how temperature and pH affect the enzymatic rate of pepsin (a stomach protease). You will also determine how the presence of pepsin affects the rate of protein (albumin) digestion. 

​
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Protocol
  •  Obtain 5 test tubes and label them with a wax pen as follows:
    • #1
    • #2 (positive control)
    • #3
    • #4 (negative control)
    • #5
  • 1) In test tube #1:
    • add 2mL of albumin solution
    • add 3mL pepsin solution
    • add 1 drop of DI water
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening and mix well.
    • Place test tube the 37 ºC water bath for 60 minutes while mixing the test tube every 10 minutes.
  • 2) In test tube #2:
    • add 2mL of albumin solution
    • add 3mL pepsin solution
    • add and 1 drop of 10N HCl
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening and mix well. 
    • Place test tube the 37 ºC water bath for 60 minutes while mixing the test tube every 10 minutes.
  • 3) In test tube #3:
    • add 2mL of albumin solution
    • add 3mL pepsin solution
    • add 1 drop of 10N NaOH
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening and mix well. 
    • Place test tube the 37 ºC water bath for 60 minutes while mixing the test tube every 10 minutes.
  • 4) In test tube #4:
    • add 2mL of albumin solution
    • add 5mL of DI water
    • add 1 drop of 10N HCl.
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening and mix well. 
    • Place test tube the 37 ºC water bath for 60 minutes while mixing the test tube every 10 minutes.
  • 5) In test tube #5:
    • add 2mL of albumin solution
    • add 3mL pepsin solution
    • add 1 drop of 10N HCl.
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening and mix well. 
    • Place test tube the ICE BATH for 60 minutes while mixing the test tube every 10 minutes.
  • 6) Remove all the test tubes from the 37 ºC water bath and the ice bath.
  • 7) Add 10 drops of​ Biuret reagent into each test. Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well.
  • 8) Determine the Biuret reagent results Compare each test tube to the positive control and negative control. Think about the ideal environment found in the stomach. Determine how pepsin affects protein digestion. Determine how pH affects protein digestion. Determine how temperature affects protein digestion.
  • 9). Clean-up: Dispose of parafilm in regular trash. Dispose of all liquids in the chemical waste container near a sink. Place the test tubes in the test tube collection bucket. Rinse and wash all serological pipets and graduated cylinders.

​   You will use Biuret reagent to determine the relative number to peptide bonds in the solution; a dark purple color indicates the presence of more peptide bonds and a light purple color indicates the presence of less peptide bonds. 
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Pepsin firsts digest proteins into peptides, and then it will eventually turn peptides into amino acids. ... The reagent that detects if proteins are present is the blue colored “Biuret reagent”. When it combines with the peptide bonds found in protein and peptides, it changes to purple.

Fat Digestion

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Fat digestion mainly occurs in the mouth and in the small intestine. The enzymes responsible for breaking down fats into glycerol and triglycerides are called lipases (for example salivary lipase and pancreatic lipase). The chemical that mechanically breaks down fats is called bile. The liver makes bile salts and stores them in the gall bladder. The gall bladder then secretes bile into the small intestine to aid in increasing the rate of fat digestion. 

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Goal #1: Emulsify large fat globules into tiny fat droplets. Bile salts contain the enzyme lipase. Lipase is a water soluble enzyme that cannot penetrate to the inner regions of the fat droplet. Instead, lipase will act on the surface of the fat droplets. When the larger fat globules are turned into smaller spheres, these small sphere have a higher surface-to-volume ratio, which allows lipase to effectively break down fats into its simplest components. 
Today you will determine how quickly lipase acts with and without the presence of bile. You will use soap (an amphipathic molecule) to determine how amphipathic molecules like bile emulsify fats (heavy cream) to increase surface area.

​In the next experiment you will determine how pancreatic lipase breaks down fats (heavy cream). You will then use pancreatic lipase and bile to determine how the rate of fat digestion is influenced by both bile and pancreatic lipase. You will use litmus (a pH indicator) to determine how the fats are chemically digested; alkaline solutions are blue, neutral solutions are lavender, and acidic solutions are pink.
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Lab Exercise: C. Fat Emulsification & Digestion in the Small Intestine

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 Protocol #1: Fat Emulsion (mechanical digestion) by the molecule bile
  •  ​ 1) Obtain 2 test tubes and label them with a wax pen as follows:
    • soap (S) 
    • bile (B)
  • 2) Add 20 drops of oil and 20 drops of DI water into the test tube labeled S. 
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. Record your results. 
  • 3) Add 2 drops of soap to the test tube labeled S. 
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. Record your results. 
  • 4) Add 20 drops of oil and 20 drops of DI water into the test tube labeled B. 
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. Record your results. 
  • 5) Add 2 drops of bile to the test tube labeled B. 
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. Record your results. 
  • 6) Compare your results in test tube S and test tube B. 
    • Explain how amphipathic molecules function to mechanically break down fats to increase surface area. 
  • 7) Clean-up: Dispose of parafilm in regular trash. Dispose of all liquids in the sink while running water. Place the test tubes in the test tube collection bucket. Rinse and wash all serological pipets and graduated cylinders. 

 Protocol #2: Mechanical and Chemical Fat Digestion in the Small Intestine
  •  Obtain 4 test tubes and label them with a wax pen as follows: 
    • #1
    • #2 (positive control) 
    • #3 
    • #4 (negative control) 
*CAUTION for steps 2-5: To mix the following test tube ingredients you may need a glass rod. Make sure to wash and dry the rod between uses. Do not use a serological pipet to mix the tubes.
  • 1. Add 1.5mL of Heavy Cream, 2.5mL DI water, 0.5mL bile, and 1.5mL litmus into the test tube labeled #1. 
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. 
  • 2) Add 1.5mL of Heavy Cream, 2.5mL pancreatic lipase, 0.5mL bile, and 1.5mL litmus into the test tube labeled #2. 
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. 
  • 3) Add 1.5mL of Heavy Cream, 2.5mL pancreatic lipase, 0.5mL DI water, and 1.5mL litmus into the test tube labeled #3.
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. 
  • 4) Add 1.5mL of Heavy Cream, 3mL DI water and 1.5mL litmus into the test tube labeled #4. 
    • Stretch parafilm over the opening. Mix well. 
  • 5) Show your test tubes to your instructor. 
  • 6) Incubate all the test tubes in the 37 ºC water bath. Observe how the pH of each test tube changes every 3 minutes for 15 minutes by looking at the color change. 
  • 7) Remove the test tubes from the 37 ºC water bath after the incubation period. 
  • 8) Compare your test tube results to the positive control and negative control. Explain how bile affects the rate of chemical digestion by pancreatic lipase. Explain the role of bile and pancreatic lipase in fat digestion. Explain why the pH changes when fats are digested. 
  • 9) Clean-up: Dispose of parafilm in regular trash. Dispose of all liquids in the chemical waste container. Place the test tubes in the test tube collection bucket. Rinse and wash all serological pipets, graduated cylinders, and glass rods.

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