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  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
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  • College/Life Skills
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    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
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    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
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      • The Basics
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    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
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    • GROWTH CURVES
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    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
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  • General Biology
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      • Enzymes
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      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
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    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
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      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
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    • buffers
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    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
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    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
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  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
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  • Anatomy
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      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
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    • Anatomy Basics
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      • Levels of Organization
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    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

The Integumentary System

SKIN

Beauty of the skin is more then SKIN DEEP!

via GIPHY

Picture
​Your skin's thickness varies in different areas of your body. Skin can be categorized as either thick skin or thin skin. Your thick skin is located in regions of your body that has a lot of physical contact with the outside world. These areas include your fingertips, your palms and the soles of your feet. These extra layers help to protect the soft tissues from abrasions. Thick skin differs from thin skin in its structure. While the epidermis is thicker in thick skin than in thin skin, but the layer of the dermis turns out to be thinner. Also, thick skin does not contain hairs, sebaceous glands, or sweat glands. The epithelium of thick skin contains 5 epidermal layers, whereas thin skin contains only 4 layers.

The skin performs a variety of functions. We may spend a lot of time preparing our dead skin cells to look their best for the world, but your skin does a lot more than just give you an attractive face! Let's take a look at the ways your skin is hard at work to keep you movin' and groovin' throughout your day!

1. Protection
    The primary function of your skin is to protect your internal organs and soft tissue from the outside world.  It provides a barrier that is able to withstand some wear and tear. It can get bumped, bruised or scraped and it is able to heal relatively quickly. This is because the epidermis is composed of stratified squamous tissue which provides layers of small, easily replaced squamous cells. The barrier of your skin also protects you from harmful elements like bacteria, viruses, chemicals and even contains melanin (within specialized cells called melanocytes) which provides protection from harmful UV radiation from the sun. Skin also prevents excess water loss from the body. 

2. Body Temperature Regulation.
     
Your skin 
helps control your body temperature. When you are getting too hot, the skin reacts by activating sweat glands to secrete sweat that helps your body cool down. Your layers of adipose tissue (fats) helps the internal core body to keep warm. In extremely low temperatures, the blood flow to your extremities is restricted to conserve warmth toward the core of the body where vital organs are located. 

3. Excretion
    You sweat, but what is it? Your sweat is made of urea, salts, and water. 

4. Production of vitamin D
    Not all UV radiation is bad for you. Your skin actually does need a small amount of UV rays from the sun to produce valuable vitamin D. Vitamin D is necessary for the body to absorb calcium from your digestive tract.

5. Sensory Reception.
    
The skin gathers sensory information about the outside world that gets relayed to the brain. Your skin has sensory receptors for temperature, touch and pain. 

The Layers of the Skin

The outermost surface of your skin (the superficial region) is made of a thick epithelial tissue called epidermis. The word "derm" means "skin". The prefix "epi-" means "above". Beneath the epidermis, (deep to the epidermis) is the layer of the dermis. The dermis is composed of connective tissue. The skin is composed of the epidermis and the dermis. Below the skin (deep to the skin) there is another layer called the hypodermis. "Hypo-" means "below". This layer is composed of  areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue. The hypodermis is NOT considered to be part of the skin itself. 

Picture

​The skin is composed of 2 primary layers: 
1) the epidermis
2) the dermis

The apical (outer most) layer is called the epidermis. The prefix "epi-" means "above".  Lying underneath the epidermis is the dermis. Each of these primary layers is broken down into subsequent layers.

     Epidermal tissue is categorized as a keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissue. The most abundant type of cell found in the epidermis are keratinocytes. Keratinocytes produce keratin  which is a fibrous protein that gives strength to epidermis.  The keratin protects the deeper tissue layers not only by providing a physical barrier to the outside world, but they provide antibiotics. and enzymes that act to detoxify the harmful chemicals to which our skin is exposed.  Keratinocytes form in the deepest portion of the epithelium (the stratum basale) and then are continuously pushed outward until they die and eventually get sloughed off of the body. We loose millions of these dead skin cells every day!  your epidermis is completely replaced every 35-45 days.   

     The keratinocytes undergo physical changes as they mature and move closer to the surface of your skin. The keratinocytes are created from stem cells that exist in the stratum basale. As these cells are pushed up by the production of new cells beneath them, they make their way to higher (more apical) epithelial layers. When the keratinocytes reach the stratum spinosum (the layer superficial to the stratum basale) they begin to produce keratin. Once they reach the stratum granulosum, these cells are busy making lots of keratin which fills their cytoplasm. The keratinocytes begin to die as they become part of the stratum lucidum, becoming smaller and clear. They begin to loose their organelles as they die. By the time these dead keratinized squamous epithelial cells reach the skin's surface, they are completely dead and are characterized as "corneocytes".  The corneocytes are basically dead, flat sacs completely filled with fibrous keratin.

     There are no blood vessels in the epidermis, so the epidermis does not have its own blood supply. The epidermis get nutrients and gasses , oxygen, and vitamins travel to the epidermis through the rete pegs, which are made up of a network of very small blood vessels that project down to the dermis layer.

The Epidermis

The Layers of the Epidermis

   The epidermis consists of 5 layers in thick skin / 4 layers in thin skin.
  1. Stratum Corneum - Translates as "horny layer". 
  2. Stratum Lucidem - Translates as "clear layer".  ONLY EXISTS IN THICK SKIN
  3. Stratum Granulosum - Translates as "granular layer". 
  4. Stratum Spinosum - Translates as "spinous layer/prickle cell layer".
  5. Stratus Basale  - Translate as "basal layer".

Need a Mnemonic?? Try, Come, Let's Get SunBurned!
C = Stratum Corneum
L = Stratum Lucidem
G = Stratum Granulosum
S = Stratum Spinosum
B = Stratum Basale 


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The Layers of the Epidermis
(HINT: they go in alphabetical order).
​Starting at the apical (top) end...

1.  The Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer) 
     
The stratum corneum is a  keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium
that contains four 
types of cells. The four cells types cells that make up the stratum conrneum are 1) keratinocytes, 2) melanocytes, 3) tactile epithelial
cells, and 4) dendritic cells 

    The stratum corneum is Latin for 'horny layer'. Its odd name comes from the dead squamous cells called corneocytes that make up the apical surface of the tissue. The corneocytes form several layers of flattened (squamous) cells with no nuclei and no  organelles. 
This is the layer that includes the final keratin product, which is a combination of cytokeratin and keratohyaline.
​
2.  *The Stratum Lucidum 
    The stratum lucidum is Latin for "clear layer". This epidermal layer gets its name from translucent appearance of the dead skin cells that make it up. *This layer only exists in the thick skin of the soles of your feet, your palms and your fingertips.

​3.   Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer)
  
 The stratum granulosum  is Latin for granular layer.
n this layer, the keratinocytes have become squamous cells that contain granules of keratohyaline, a precursor to the extracellular keratin that protects the skin tissue from abrasion.

​4. Stratum Spinosum (Prickle Cell Layer)
    The stratum spinosum is Latin for "spiny".
After forming in the basal cell layer, keratinocytes migrate upwards to form the stratum spinosum. In this layer, they develop short projections that attach via desmosomes to adjacent cells. The stratum spinosum is also known as the "prickly layer" because of these characteristic spines. The cells in this layer produce cytokeratin, an intermediate filament precursor to keratin.The cells in this layer experiences shrinking of its microfilaments during the slide staining process. 

​5. Stratum Basale (Basal Layer)
    T
he stratum basale is the deepest of the 5 epidermal layers. The primary cell of the epidermis is the keratinocyte stem cells which give a continuous supply of new cells to replace old dead ones. The stratum basale also contain sensory nerves called Meissner's (Tactile) Corpuscles that are sensitive to light tactile sensations (light touch). This layer also contains melaocytes which produce the pigment melanin which acts to filter out harmful UV radiation. 

Video of Skin Model for San Bernardino Valley College
​
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Video of 3D Skin Model - Layers of the Epidermis
For Rio Hondo

This 3D skin model is identical to the one we use for our practical exam. The video below can be found at youtu.be/o3so9gKQItE
Video of 3D Skin Model - Layers of the Epidermis
For SAC
The epidermis is characterized as keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

The picture below is a close up of the epidermal region of our 3D skin model.

​The stratum basale in our 3D model appears at the interface between the wavy beige region and the gray region. It is a single-cell layer that has stem cells
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The epidermis consists of 4 cell types.
  1. Keratinocytes - The most abundant cell type in the epidermis. They are created in the stratum basale and pushed upward toward the skin's surface.  These cells make keratin and act to protect deeper layers of soft tissue. These cells die as they approach the surface of the skin.  Once they are dead and shriveled up, they are called corneocytes. 
  2. Melanocytes - Pigmented cells of the stratum basale region that produce melanin which protects from UV radiation.
  3. Merkel  Cells -  function as touch receptors in association with sensory nerve endings (Merkel disc); located at epidermal-dermal junction
  4. Langerhans’ Cells  - epidermal macrophage-like cells that help activate the immune system via receptor-mediated endocytosis; arise from bone marrow;

​Touch receptors of the skin.
 Your skin has specialized sensory receptors called touch (tactile) receptors or mechanoreceptors which responds to mechanical pressure or distortion by generating a signal that will ultimately reach the brain.

There are four main types of mechanoreceptors in your skin
  1. Pacinian corpuscles
  2. Meissner's corpuscles
  3. Merkel's discs 
  4. Ruffini endings

The Dermis and Hypodermis

Video of 3D Skin Model - Dermis and Hypodermis

This 3D skin model is identical to the one we use for our practical exam. The video below can be found here:  youtu.be/o3so9gKQItE
Picture
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3D Skin Model from San Bernardino Valley College


3D Skin and Hair Follicle Model
Dermis and Hypodermis

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Rio Hondo Model #2

VIDEO - Glands and Sensory Structures of the Skin

Melanocytes are specialized cells that lie within the skin. They produce a brown pigment (melanin)  that functions to provide protection from damaging UV radiation from the sun. The pigment filters out the UV light. When your skin is exposed to more sunlight, your melanocyte darken the skin by increasing the production of melanin.
Picture
Melanocytes - make melanin - makes skin dark.  Protects from UV Light. UV light is carcinogenic. This is why getting too much sun can cause skin cancer. 


Slides of Hair Follicle

Picture

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