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      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
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    • dissection of the fetal pig
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    • In-Vitro Fertilization
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    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
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    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
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  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
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    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
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    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
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  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
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      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
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      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
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      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE

Video

CHROMOSOMES

HOW OUR DNA IS PACKAGED

Picture
By Eukaryote_DNA.svg: *Difference_DNA_RNA-EN.svg: *Difference_DNA_RNA-DE.svg: Sponk (talk)translation: Sponk (talk)Chromosome.svg: *derivative work: Tryphon (talk)Chromosome-upright.png: Original version: Magnus Manske, this version with upright chromosome: User:Dietzel65Animal_cell_structure_en.svg: LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz)derivative work: Radio89derivative work: Radio89 - This file was derived from  Eukaryote DNA.svg:, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20539140

   Chromosomes are normally visible under a light microscope only when the cell is undergoing the metaphase of cell division.

   Before this happens, every chromosome is copied once (
S phase), and the copy is joined to the original by a centromere (2), resulting in an X-shaped structure.

   The original chromosome and the copy are now called 
sister chromatids.

   During metaphase, when a chromosome is in its most condensed state, the X-shape structure is called a metaphase chromosome. In this highly condensed form chromosomes are easiest to distinguish and study.

Karyotype

Picture
Diagram of a replicated and condensed metaphase eukaryotic chromosome.
  1. Chromatid – one of the two identical parts of the chromosome after S phase.
  2. Centromere – the point where the two chromatids touch.
  3. (3) Short strand.
  4. (4) Long strand.
Picture
​By derivative work: Tryphon (talk)Chromosome-upright.png:
​Original version: Magnus Manske, this version with upright chromosome: User:Dietzel65 - This is a retouched picture, which means that it has been digitally altered from its original version. Modifications: Made a SVG file inspired by this picture.. The original can be viewed here: Chromosome-upright.png. Modifications made by Tryphon. This vector image was created with Inkscape.
,
​CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5285797

     Our chromosomes are the most visible during metaphase. We can harvest the DNA at this stage and line up the chromosomes into a KARYOTYPE.

    The DNA of humans is packaged into 2 sets of 23 distinct chromosomes. One set is from your mom and the other is from your dad.
DNA structure.

 
DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Our DNA backbone contain sugar!

  All of the genetic diversity in nature is due to different sequences of the four types of nitrogen bases that make up DNA.

These are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). 
Picture
Picture
Picture
Picture
Picture
BASE PAIRING
Picture

Genetic Variance

     Genetic variance is brought about by 2 processes:
1) crossing over and 
2) independent assortment.


​ Even though we all have the same genes, the 
type  of genes are different. You can think of it as having different flavors of ice cream. Ice cream has a lot of different flavors, but they are still ice cream. In genetics, we call the different types of genes, Alleles. ​ The form of the gene can be either DOMINANT or RECESSIVE. A dominant gene is the one that can mask the expression of the a recessive gene. Humans have 2 full sets of chromosomes. 
Picture
By Abbyprovenzano - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26261468
    One set of your chromosomes comes from your mom that came from the egg that made you, and the other set came from your dad in his sperm that fertilized the egg. So you have 2 sets of 23 chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. Since you have 2 full sets of chromosomes, this means that you have 2 genes for each of your traits (one gene from mom and one gene from dad). Some genetic traits are dominant and will be expressed (outwardly displayed), even if the other equivalent gene is a recessive form. A recessive ​gene is the gene that can be masked by the dominant gene. 
Picture
A phenotype is the observable characteristics or traits that are displayed in an organism according to their genotype. A phenotype is the result of a person's genotype.  A genotype is the actual genes the organism carries. Though phenotype and genotype are related, they are not the same thing. Let's look at why!
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   An individual would have to be homozygous recessive in order to have the recessive trait. This means that they have inherited a recessive gene from mom and a recessive gene from dad. 

The genotype of an individual that is homozygous recessive for eye color would be 'ee'. A homozygous dominant individual would be 'EE'. A person that is heterozygous for eye color would be "Ee" and would have inherited a dominant gene for eye color from one parent and a recessive gene for eye color from the other parent. This individual would have brown eyes, since  the dominant allele will mask the recessive allele. ​
The notation that geneticists use to denote a homozygous recessive genotype is by using 2 lower-cased letters. The letter can be anything, but we usually try to have the letter 'mean' something. For example, if we wish to designate the letter 'E' for eye color, then the dominant eye color of brown will be symbolized as 'E' and the recessive trait of blue eyes will be symbolized as 'e'. ​

An Example of the Benefits of Genetic Diversity

MUTATIONS - Black Death and HIV
The genetic literacy project
                                    Read more at the link above which will bring you to the URL https://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2014/04/04/black-plagues-quirky-genetics-700-years-later/​ 
  Meiosis increases genetic variation due to the random recombination of genetic material (from mom and dad).  It is for this reason that we consider meiosis sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction, like we see in mitosis, yields genetically identical offspring (clones of the parent cell). Sexual reproduction is important for survival of the species. For example, when a potentially detrimental change occurs in the environment, a species having a wide variety of genetic variation will have a much better chance that at least some of the individuals of the species will survive.
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   Genetic diversity allows offspring to have a better chance of surviving environmental changes (natural selection). This diversity comes about through the process of Meiosis which creates eggs (oocytes) and sperm (spermatozoa). 

Your eggs and sperm cells are sex cells and they have a special name, GAMETES. ​

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     Your gametes develop from a progenitor cell. The Progenitor cell will enter the cell cycle. At the beginning of G1, the progenitor cell has 46 chromosomes (23 chromosomes from the mom and 23 chromosomes from dad). In S-Phase, the chromosomes of the cell replicate them selves, but the copies stay attached to each other at the centromere.  The genetic material is doubled, but the chromosome number has not changed. The chromosomes are in a de-condensed state here and are also called chromatin in this form. Also, the chromosomes are not visible in this state. Next, the cell undergoes the G2 phase in final preparation for Meiosis.
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Genetic Inheritance

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    Genetic variance is brought about by 1) crossing over and 2) independent assortment. Even though we all have the same genes, the type  of genes are different. You can think of it as having different flavors of ice cream. Ice cream has a lot of different flavors, but they are still ice cream. In genetics, we call the different types of genes, Alleles. ​ The form of the gene can be either DOMINANT or RECESSIVE. A dominant gene is the one that can mask the expression of the a recessive gene. Humans have 2 full sets of chromosomes. One set from your mom that came from the egg that made you, and one set came from the sperm that fertilized the egg. So you have 2 sets of 23 chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. SInce you have 2 full sets of chromosomes, this means that you have 2 genes for each of your traits (one gene from mom and one gene from dad). Some genetic traits are dominant and will be expressed (outwardly displayed), even if the other equivalent gene is a recessive form. ​

Picture
   An individual would have to be homozygous recessive in order to have the recessive trait. This means that they have inherited a recessive gene from mom and a recessive gene from dad. The notation that geneticists use to denote a homozygous recessive genotype is by using 2 lower-cased letters. The letter can be anything, but we usually try to have the letter 'mean' something. Forexample, if we wish to designate the letter 'E' for eye color, then the dominant eye color of brown will be symbolized as 'E' and the recessive trait of blue eyes will be symbolized as 'e'. The genotype of an individual that is homozygous recessive for eye color would be 'ee'. A homozygous dominant individual would be 'EE'. A person that is heterozygous for eye color would be "Ee" and would have inherited a dominant gene for eye color from one parent and a recessive gene for eye color from the other parent. This individual would have brown eyes, since  the dominant allele will mask the recessive allele. 


   An individual would have to be homozygous recessive in order to have the recessive trait. This means that they have inherited a recessive gene from mom and a recessive gene from dad. The notation that geneticists use to denote a homozygous recessive genotype is by using 2 lower-cased letters. The letter can be anything, but we usually try to have the letter 'mean' something. Forexample, if we wish to designate the letter 'E' for eye color, then the dominant eye color of brown will be symbolized as 'E' and the recessive trait of blue eyes will be symbolized as 'e'. The genotype of an individual that is homozygous recessive for eye color would be 'ee'. A homozygous dominant individual would be 'EE'. A person that is heterozygous for eye color would be "Ee" and would have inherited a dominant gene for eye color from one parent and a recessive gene for eye color from the other parent. This individual would have brown eyes, since  the dominant allele will mask the recessive allele. 

Genotype- the actual allele combination in an individual
Phenotype- outward manifestation or expression of an individuals genotype
 Alleles- alternative forms of the same gene
 Dominant is the one that can mask the expression of the other
 Recessive the gene whose expression is able to be masked
Homozygous recessive-
  • alleles of both chromosomes are recessive  (LOWER CASE)
Homozygous dominant
  • dominant allele is found on both homologous chromosomes (CAPS)
 Heterozygous
  • one dominant and one recessive allele (one lower case and one capital letter)
  • Will have the dominant physical trait.
 
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