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    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
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    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
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      • The Integumentary System
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      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
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    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
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      • Introduction to the Nervous System
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    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
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      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
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    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
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    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
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    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
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      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

Genetic Inheritance

   Genetic variability in a population is extremely important for the long-term survival of that species. The idea is that if there happens to be some sort of cataclysmic event, (such as a viral outbreak, severe drought, sudden extreme changes in weather, etc.) there will be a portion of that population that happen to have necessary genes to survive the change. 
Picture
​     Our genes are passed on, generation after generation. Our genes carry information that gets expressed as physical traits. This tangible expression of one's genetic makeup is referred to as one's PHENOTYPE, whereas the actual genes a person carries would be considered a person's GENOTYPE. You might not yet understand how there can be a difference between what genes a person has and how they are expressed and displayed as traits, but by the end of this lesson, you will!

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A phenotype is the observable characteristics or traits that are displayed in an organism according to their genotype. A phenotype is the result of a person's genotype.  A genotype is the actual genes the organism carries. Though phenotype and genotype are related, they are not the same thing. Let's look at why!

    One set of your chromosomes comes from your mom that came from the egg that made you, and the other set came from your dad in his sperm that fertilized the egg. So you have 2 sets of 23 chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. Since you have 2 full sets of chromosomes, this means that you have 2 genes for each of your traits (one gene from mom and one gene from dad). 
Some genetic traits are dominant and will be expressed (outwardly displayed), even if the other equivalent gene is a recessive form. A recessive ​gene is the gene that can be masked by the dominant gene. ​ You carry 2 genes for each of your genetic traits. One gene is from your mother and the other from your father. For a lot of traits, only one of these genes gets expressed. 
  In order to display a dominant genotype, you only need to inherit one dominant gene (allele) from one of your parents. Of course, you would also display the dominant genetic trait if you inherited 2 dominant alleles; one from each of your parents. ​
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A dominant genetic trait will be expressed (outwardly displayed), even if the other equivalent gene is a recessive form.


​The genotype of an individual that displays a recessive phenotype, must have inherited 2 recessive alleles for that gene; one from their mother and one from their father.  
Picture

CHROMOSOMES

HOW OUR DNA IS PACKAGED

Picture
By Eukaryote_DNA.svg: *Difference_DNA_RNA-EN.svg: *Difference_DNA_RNA-DE.svg: Sponk (talk)translation: Sponk (talk)Chromosome.svg: *derivative work: Tryphon (talk)Chromosome-upright.png: Original version: Magnus Manske, this version with upright chromosome: User:Dietzel65Animal_cell_structure_en.svg: LadyofHats (Mariana Ruiz)derivative work: Radio89derivative work: Radio89 - This file was derived from  Eukaryote DNA.svg:, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20539140

   Chromosomes are normally visible under a light microscope only when the cell is undergoing the metaphase of cell division.

   Before this happens, every chromosome is copied once (S phase), and the copy is joined to the original by a centromere (2), resulting in an X-shaped structure.

   The original chromosome and the copy are now called sister chromatids.

   During metaphase, when a chromosome is in its most condensed state, the X-shape structure is called a metaphase chromosome. In this highly condensed form chromosomes are easiest to distinguish and study.
Picture
Picture
Diagram of a replicated and condensed metaphase eukaryotic chromosome.
  1. Chromatid – one of the two identical parts of the chromosome after S phase.
  2. Centromere – the point where the two chromatids touch.
  3. (3) Short strand.
  4. (4) Long strand.

We can harvest the DNA, process it and stain it into a KARYOTYPE.

Karyotype

Picture
Picture
​By derivative work: Tryphon (talk)Chromosome-upright.png:
​Original version: Magnus Manske, this version with upright chromosome: User:Dietzel65 - This is a retouched picture, which means that it has been digitally altered from its original version. Modifications: Made a SVG file inspired by this picture.. The original can be viewed here: Chromosome-upright.png. Modifications made by Tryphon. This vector image was created with Inkscape.
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​CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5285797

    The DNA of humans is packaged into 2 sets of 23 distinct chromosomes. One set is from your mom and the other is from your dad.
DNA structure

 DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Our DNA backbone contains sugar!

  All of the genetic diversity in nature is due to different sequences of the four types of nitrogen bases that make up DNA..

These are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). 
BASE PAIRING
Adenine binds with Thymine through 2 hydrogen bonds. 
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Picture

Genetic Variance

     Genetic variance is brought about by 1) crossing over and 2) independent assortment. Even though we all have the same genes, the type  of genes are different. You can think of it as having different flavors of ice cream. Ice cream has a lot of different flavors, but they are still ice cream. In genetics, we call the different types of genes, Alleles. ​ The form of the gene can be either DOMINANT or RECESSIVE. A dominant gene is the one that can mask the expression of the a recessive gene. Humans have 2 full sets of chromosomes. 
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By Abbyprovenzano - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26261468
  Meiosis is the process by which eggs and sperm form. This way, when fertilization occurs, you get a new organism with 2 sets of DNA; one from each parent that have undergone genetic recombination. This increases the genetic variability in the offspring. ​
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   The process of meiosis increases genetic variation due to the random recombination of genetic material (from mom and dad).  It is for this reason that we consider meiosis sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction, like we see in mitosis, yields genetically identical offspring (clones of the parent cell). Sexual reproduction is important for survival of the species. For example, when a potentially detrimental change occurs in the environment, a species having a wide variety of genetic variation will have a much better chance that at least some of the individuals of the species will survive.

An Example of the Benefits of Genetic Diversity

    A very significant example of how genetic variability in a population helps the overall survival of the species is found in the history of the Black Plague (a.k.a. The black Death). The Black Plague took the lives of approximately one-half of Europe's population in the 1300's.  
MUTATIONS - Black Death and HIV
The genetic literacy project
Read more at the link above which will bring you to the URL https://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2014/04/04/black-plagues-quirky-genetics-700-years-later/​ 
   When viruses invade the body, they do not have the ability to reproduce on their own. They must invade the hosts's cells and then hijack the reproductive machinery of the cell to produce more copies of the virus. Then the copies of the virus cause the host cell to burst open, freeing thousand of copies of the virus that can then continue the cycle of cell invasion and virus replication. Eventually, as the amount of the virus increases in the body, the victim will become ill and display the symptoms of the illness.
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Picture
    In order for viruses to invade the host cells in the first place, the host cell must carry specific receptor that has the complementary shape to the virus. You can think if the receptor as a LOCK and the virus as the KEY. If the virus doesn't fit, it cannot "open the door" and gain entrance to the host cell. In the case of the Black Plague, some of the European population carried a specific type of genetic mutation that caused the receptor that the virus uses to gain access to the cell, to be misshapen! The virus was unable to invade the cells of these individuals, so the virus could not reproduce and make these people sick. The mutation gave them immunity to the virus! A similar story can be found more recently in the discovery of the Delta 32 mutation that allowed some people to be immune to the HIV virus! More interestingly, this mutation (Delta 32) prevents both HIV and plague bacteria from entering human cells and causing infection. ​



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