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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
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      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
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    • Digestive System
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    • dissection of the fetal pig
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
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    • Blood
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    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
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    • Course Information
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    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
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      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
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      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
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      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
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      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

Microscopes 

SEEING IS BELIEVING

Light Microscopes

​Microscopes that use visible light to view the microscopic world are broadly categorized as "light microscopes". ​
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Compound Microscopes are a type of light microscope that uses a series of 2 lenses in order to achieve higher magnifying power than simple microscopes having only one lens (also known as "dissecting microscopes".) When using a compound microscope, specimen must be placed on a transparent microscope slide and covered with a transparent cover slip in order to view. The specimen is then placed on the stage of the microscope over the light source to allow light to pass through the specimen. The illuminated specimen is viewed through 2 magnifying lenses; 1) the magnifying lens of the objective located on the rotating nose-piece which is positioned directly over the specimen, and 2) the magnifying lens located in the eye-pieces. The eyepieces have a fixed magnification of 10X. The rotating nosepiece will have an array of objectives ranging from 4X up to perhaps 100X, depending on the microscope. Each objective is clearly marked indicating its magnification power. 

Field of View

The field of view DECREASES as you INCREASE magnification.
The amount of light observed through the microscope gets dimmer (is reduced) as you increase magnification.

You should notice that your DEPTH OF FOCUS decreases as magnification INCREASES. This means that with a relatively small movement of the fine focus knob, you could be out of the focal range. For looking at cells, you will notice you will see fewer layers of cells at higher magnifications.
You can measure the actual length of your field of view by viewing a ruler or standardized grid with millimeter demarcations using the 10 X objective. count the number of mm in your field of view, then convert to micrometers. (1000um = 1mm).

Inversion

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You should notice that the image you see is UP-SIDE-DOWN and REVERSED. This phenomenon is called INVERSION.
Due to INVERSION, when you move the slide to the RIGHT, the image of the slide that is seen through the oculars (or eye-pieces) appears to move LEFT. And, when you move the slide to the LEFT, the image of the slide that is seen through the oculars (or eye-pieces) appears to move RIGHT. 
This means the object will appear to move in the OPPOSITE direct as it is being moved in reality. 

​Inversion is term used for the reversal of an image projected by a compound microscope. Compound microscopes have more that one magnifying lens. In most educational institutions, students use compound microscopes that contain 2 magnifying lenses. One of the magnifying lenses is called the OBJECTIVE.  Typically, an array of objectives are screwed into the rotating nose-piece of the microscope, each having different magnifying power. The lowest power objective is the 4X objective, also called the "scanning" objective. This term is used, because the 4X objective should be used first, when viewing a new slide.  The 4X objective have a wide field of view and a long focal length, which makes finding the specimen (or the area of interest) on the slide easier to find. There should also be a low powered objective that is a 10X objective and a high-powered objective that is 40X.  Some microscopes may also have a 20X and / or 100X, etc. The second magnifying lense is not interchangeable and lies in the oculars themselves.  The oculars will almost always have a magnifying power of 10X. 
 A light source underneath the sample projects light upward through the sample and into an object lens.  The objective lens is curved, thus causing the light that passes through it to cross over, thus inverting the image.  The light then passes through the ocular lens, or the lens that you actually loo through with your eyes.  Because the ocular lens is usually a simple lens, the inversion remains and you see the image inverted.
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Introduction to the Compound Microscope

   The compound microscope allows us to magnify objects up to 1000 times (with a 100X objective). We can calculate the magnification we are observing with the microscope by multiplying the magnification power of the objective, by the magnification power of the eyepieces. The magnification of the eyepieces is always 10X. There fore, If you are using the 40X objective, the object you are viewing under the microscope would be magnified 400 times more than with the naked eye. If we do the math, we see that 10X  times 40X equals 400X.  Compound microscopes are good for viewing up to 1 micrometer, or 100 nanometers (nm).  

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Physicist Ernst Ruska and electrical engineer Max Knoll constructed the first electron microscope in 1931.
 (Side note about EM)  In order to view even smaller objects, we would have to go to using a method that does not depend upon light. This is because the wavelength of visible light itself is only between 390 nm and 700 nm. At these small levels we can use electron microscopes since they utilize the wavelengths of electrons to visualize the specimen which are several orders of magnitude smaller than the wavelength of visible light. With electron microscopes we can visualize objects as small as 0.5 nm.

 ​HOW TO USE THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Image of a female student holding a compound microscope properly, with one hand on the base of the microscope and the other hand on the neck of the microscope.
​I. HANDLING

 Before using the compound microscope, it is important to know how to handle and care for it. When transporting the microscope, it is very important to make sure that you have a good grip on the scope and carry it with 2 hands at all times. One hand should be placed on the base of the scope while the other should be placed on the body (see diagram). The scopes are not necessarily heavy, but their center of mass is at the base, making it unstable if supporting by one hand alone. You must also be sure that any cords are wrapped up and secured before supporting so as to not trip over the cord or create a hazard for others around you to possibly trip and fall.

II. INSTRUCTIONS

Skipping or overlooking any steps could result in very costly damage to the objectives, eyepieces or other microscopic parts. Please take care to read instruction first, before doing each and every step. ​
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1) Place microscope gently on the counter at your workstation.
2) Ensure that the scope is away from any edges so that it will not fall or get knocked over.
3) Plug in the microscope.
4) Locate the ON/OFF switch and turn the microscope ON.
5) Locate the LIGHT LEVEL adjustment and turn the light down so you do not hurt your eyes with bright light. 
6) Use the COARSE FOCUS knob to move the stage all the way toward the bottom (base) of the scope (if it is not already there).
7) Once the stage is all the way down, you can safely rotate the NOSEPIECE to select different powered objectives.
8) Locate the 4X objective and make sure that that objective is pointing directly down toward the stage.  (Failure to do steps 6, 7, and 8 in order can result in the objective hitting the stage, causing breakage!)


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9) Once you have prepared your slide, you will place it on the STAGE, securing it between the two metal clips. 
10) Locate the STAGE ADJUSTMENT/MOTION knob. Notice that this allows you to move the stage right and left and forward and back. You should try to center the specimen on your slide over the light source with the naked eye using the STAGE ADJUSTMENT knob. ​


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IV. INCREASING MAGNIFICATION

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Only after performing all of the steps (1-14) first and in order, do you want to proceed with the instructions here.
​
  • 15) Once you have your object fully focused at 4X, make sure the object is directly in the center of our point of view. from this point YOU WILL NO LONGER BE USING THE COARSE FOCUS KNOB!
  • 16) Now you can rotate the NOSE-PEICE carefully to ensure that you are going directly to only the NEXT HIGHEST magnification only (this would be the 10X). Skipping over a magnification objective may cause the objective to hit the stage, causing damage! 
  • 17) If you have followed the instructions closely, your specimen should be relatively in focus and in your new (smaller) field of view. You may now use the STAGE ADJUSTMENT knob and the FINE FOCUS (NOT THE COARSE FOCUS) to center and focus the object at this new magnification. If you "lose your specimen" in the field of view, you must go down to the 4X objective and start over. "Fishing" for the object with the higher objectives can cause the objective the hit the stage, not to mention that it will be much easier to find the object with the larger field of view of the 4X objective. 
  • 18) In order to go to 40X, you will repeat steps 16 and 17 accordingly.

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Can You Identify These Parts of The Microscope?
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PUTTING AWAY SCOPES

1) Turn off POWER switch.
2) Make sure the stage is all the way toward the bottom (toward the base).
3) Make sure that the 4X objective is pointing down toward the stage. 
4) Wrap up and Secure Cord. 
5) Carry with 2 hands; one on the base and the other on the body.
6) Be aware of your surrounding and carefully place the scope in the proper place. 
7) Make sure you area is left clean.
PARFOCAL
--- Microscopes have a special property, called "being PARFOCAL" which means that once the object is focus and centered using the 4X, when you switch to the next highest objective, your specimen will be relatively centered and in focus. You should only have to make MINOR adjustments to the FINE FOCUS and the STAGE POSITION, in order to view your object at the higher objective. If you have difficulty, you must go back to 4X and recenter and refocus!

Field of View


The field of view DECREASES as you INCREASE magnification.
The amount of light observed through the microscope gets dimmer (is reduced) as you increase magnification.
You should notice that the image you see is UP-SIDE-DOWN and REVERSED (the is INVERSION).
This means the object will appear to move in the OPPOSITE direct as it is being moved in reality.
You should notice that your DEPTH OF FOCUS decreases as magnification INCREASES. This means that with a relatively small movement of the fine focus knob, you could be out of the focal range. For looking at cells, you will notice you will see fewer layers of cells at higher magnifications.
You can measure the actual length of your field of view by viewing a ruler or standardized grid with millimeter demarcations using the 10 X objective. count the number of mm in your field of view, then convert to micrometers. (1000um = 1mm).

Dark-field microscopy is used for observing objects that have low contrast.
Only light rays scattered by specimen enter objective lens.
Specimen appears light against dark background.
Increases contrast and enables observation of more details.
Picture
Image courtesy of https://group1micropara.weebly.com/microscope/dark-field-microscopy

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