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    • dissection of the fetal pig
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
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    • Case Study One
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    • Fertility and Conception
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  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
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    • DIVERSITY
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      • Predation
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    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
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    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
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  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
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      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
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    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
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    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
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      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
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      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
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    • A History of Human Biology
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    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
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    • The Appendicular Skeleton
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  • Human Sexuality
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    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
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    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
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      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
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    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
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    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
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    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
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  • Chemistry of Life
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  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
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  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
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  • Immunohistochemistry
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  • Anatomy
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      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
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    • Anatomy Basics
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      • Medical Terminology
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      • Levels of Organization
      • Anatomical Positions
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      • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

THE CELL CYCLE

Picture

Click on the Slide Show Below to Navigate!

     The story of you!

   
​     How did YOU get from Baby to Grown-Up? The answer is...
MITOSIS!  
     All the Cells of your Body (except for your oocytes and spermatozoa) Reproduce by...
MITOSIS!
You see, cells undergo what we like to call "The Cell Cycle". 90% of this cycle involves the cells preparations for division in mitosis. The cell cycle consists of 2 phases: Interphase and Mitosis. There is tight regulation of Cell Growth.  Cells don’t just grow when they feel like it!   You want to make enough cells, but not too many cells.  When cells start reproducing when they aren’t supposed to,  a TUMOR is formed. The Cell Cycle is the process by which the body 
regulates cell division (aka cellular reproduction).
Picture
    IN YOUR BODY  Millions of cells divide every second. Your body has ~10 trillion cells. 
Picture

​
The Stages of the Cell Cycle

       The two main stages of the cell cycle are interphase and mitosis.

  
   In mitosis, the cell divides. Mitosis has 4 phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase) followed by the action of cytokinesis when the one cell becomes 2. Mitosis is discussed on the MITOSIS page!

   In interphase, the cell is undergoing preparations for mitosis. Interphase is separated into 3 divisions; G1 (Gap1), S-Phase (DNA Synthesis), and G2 (Gap 2). 

   In G1, the cell increases in size, doubles its cytoplasmic contents and organelles and gets checked for errors. In G1 (Gap 1) of Interphase, the cell increases in size and synthesizes mRNA and proteins in preparation for subsequent steps leading to mitosis. We can think of “G1” as a “growth 1” phase.

 Next, the cell enters the S-Phase of Interphase.  At the beginning of the S phase, each chromosome is single. Each chromosome doubles it’s contents to form two sister chromatids joined at the centromere

     G2 (Gap 2) of Interphase -  The G2 phase is a period of rapid cell growth and protein synthesis during which the cell readies itself for mitosis. We can think of “G2” as a “growth 2” phase.
What is G0? G0 is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing. The cell can remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely. In G0  the cell can be either…
  •                Quiescent – lay dormant and may start dividing again
  •                Senescent – get old and eventually undergo apoptosis.

    The cell cycle is controlled at three checkpoints.    Check Points for is essential for accurate, healthy Cell Division (Reproduction). It is essential that the daughter cells are exact duplicates of the parent cell. Mistakes in the duplication or distribution of the chromosomes lead to mutations that may be passed forward to every new cell produced from an abnormal cell. The integrity of the DNA is assessed at the G1 checkpoint. Proper chromosome duplication is assessed at the G2 checkpoint.  Attachment of each kinetochore to a spindle fiber is assessed at the M checkpoint.
​
       The G1 Checkpoint -  The G1 checkpoint determines whether all conditions are favorable for cell division to proceed. The cell will only pass the checkpoint if it is an appropriate size and has adequate energy reserves. At this point, the cell also checks for DNA damage.   A cell that does not meet all the requirements will not progress to the S phase. If this happens, the cell has 2 options. It can HALT the cycle and attempt to remedy the problematic condition, or the cell can advance into G0 (inactive) phase and await further signals when conditions improve. All of the major checkpoint transitions in the cell cycle, is signaled by cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs). Cyclins are cell-signaling molecules that regulate the cell cycle.

​   
If a cell meets the requirements for the G1 checkpoint, the cell will enter S phase and begin DNA replication. The G2 checkpoint is the most important, because it is the last check point before the cell enters MITOSIS! The G2 checkpoint checks for cell size, protein reserves and check to be sure that all of the chromosomes have been accurately replicated without mistakes or damage. If the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the DNA, the cell cycle is halted and the cell attempts to either complete DNA replication or repair the damaged DNA. If the DNA has been correctly replicated, cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) signal the beginning of MITOSIS (mitotic cell division).

       The M Checkpoint occurs near the end of the metaphase stage of mitosis. The M checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint because it determines whether all the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules.  Because the separation of the sister chromatids during anaphase is an irreversible step, the cycle will not proceed until the kinetochores of each pair of sister chromatids are firmly anchored to at least two spindle fibers arising from opposite poles of the cell.

​
HeLa Cells - Henrietta Lacks and her "Immortal Cells"

  Who was Henrietta Lacks?
​   Henrieta Lacks 
was a black tobacco farmer from southern Virginia who got cervical cancer when she was 30. A doctor at Johns Hopkins took a piece of her tumor without telling her and sent it down the hall to scientists there who had been trying to grow tissues in culture for decades without success. Henrieta's cells grew easily in culture and are still used today! Her cells continue to divide. 

Why are her cells so important?
  •         Henrietta’s cells were the first immortal human cells ever grown in culture.
  •         They were essential to developing the polio vaccine.
  •         They went up in the first space missions to see what would happen to cells in zero gravity.
  •          Many scientific landmarks since then have used her cells, including cloning, gene mapping and in vitro fertilization
        There has been a lot of confusion over the years about the source of HeLa cells. Why?
When the cells were taken, they were given the code name HeLa, for the first two letters in Henrietta and Lacks.
       Today, anonymizing samples is a very important part of doing research on cells.
  •        But that wasn’t something doctors worried about much in the 1950s, so they weren’t terribly careful about her identity.
  •        When some members of the press got close to finding Henrietta’s family, the researcher who’d grown the cells made up a pseudonym—Helen Lane—to throw the media off track.
 

Some cells divide a lot and others almost never divide!  


   Some Cells Divide A LOT!  The cells that line the inside and outside of our bodies, divide a lot since they . The cells in the living layer at the base of the skin divide often to replenish the cells of the skin that are lost all the time. The cells that line the digestive system, particularly the intestines are also among the rapid dividers.
​
​     For example, neurons, muscle cells and red blood cells don't divide once they are fully differentiated (mature).  This explains why brain injuries and heart ailments are so detrimental to the sufferer. Recovery from injury to these areas is difficult, and, depending on the extent of damage, can be lethal!

​​    Red blood cells do not undergo mitosis once they are fully differentiated. Fully differentiated (mature) red blood cells are specialized for one task; getting oxygen to your cells and taking carbon dioxide away from cells. Red blood cells (RBCs) are rather odd cells, because 1) They have NO nucleus; 2)They DO NOT have DNA; 3)They have NO organelles; 4)They cannot make RNA; and  5)They cannot divide!
red blood cells are made from hemocytoblasts. Your bone marrow makes hemocytoblasts which are stem cells that have the ability to differentiate into any of the cellular components of the blood. They can become red blood cells, white blood cells or platelets (clotting factors) . The hemocytoblasts DO have a nucleus and do produce enzymes and proteins. When the RBCs mature and pour into blood they lose their nucleii.  So, a mature RBC functions only till the enzyme and protein stock in them are exhausted. That's the reason for a short life span of RBC of about 120 days. 
   Muscle cells that are fully differentiated (fully mature) do not divide. Why Don’t Muscle Cells Divide? The short answer is, “Nobody really knows.” These cells are large and complex and have very specific functions and a limited amount of “space”, so these may be key factors.
   Neurons that are fully differentiated (fully mature) do not divide. Neural stem cells can divide just fine. So, why don't most neurons divide? There are 3 likely reasons. First, neurons that are fully differentiated are highly specialized and can be very large. The brain responds to brain injury, by “rewiring” itself, and even reallocating lost functionality to new brain regions. Therefore, the brain has found an alternative to replacing damaged neurons. Nowhere is the “rewiring” ability of the brain more apparent than it is in the story of Cameron, a girl with half her brain. See the news clip of this amazing story at the link below. Cameron underwent a hemispherectomy procedure at Johns Hopkins Medical Center to treat extreme epilepsy. She had to teach her LEFT side of her brain, to take over the functions that the missing RIGHT hemisphere would have performed. Most notably, the ability to control the LEFT side of the body.

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