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    • Fertility and Conception
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      • VOLCANO LAB
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    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
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    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
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    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
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  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
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      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
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      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
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      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
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      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
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  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
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    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
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    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
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    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
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    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
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  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
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      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
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    • Anatomy Basics
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      • Levels of Organization
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      • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

Antibiotic Sensitivity

  • ​Antimicrobials : are agents that kill or inhibit microorganisms. 
  • Antibiotics : are usually low molecular weight antimicrobials that are produced by microorganisms that inhibit or kill other bacteria. ​
  • Bacteriostatic - Antimicrobial or antibiotic agents that function to inhibit the growth of bacteria only are called bacteriostatic.
  • Bactericidal - Antimicrobial or antibiotic agents that function to kill bacteria are known as bactericidal. 
  • Antiseptics : substances that kill or inhibit microbial growth and are gentle enough to be applied to living tissue. 
  • Disinfectants : Substances that are applied to inanimate objects to kill or reduce microorganisms. They are harsh and damaging to living tissue. 
  • Sanitizers are substances that do not completely eliminate all bacteria but reduce them to a safe number.

The size of the inhibition zone matters to determine the power of the antiseptic.

For antimicrobials, the spanse of the spectrum, dictates the power of the antimicrobial.
broad spectrum - works against a lot of different types of organisms
narrow spectrum - works against fewer organism

It is important to use an antimicrobial agent that the organism that you are trying to kill is sensitive to, not resistant to.

If the bacteria is sensitive to the antimicrobial drug, then the bacteria will die when it is exposed to that drug.

If it is in the intermediate category, it has a synergistic effect to clear infection, must use with another antibiotic - 
would use if the patient id allergic to the best antibiotic choice for the 

Measuring ​Antibiotic Sensitivity :
​Kirby-Bauer Method

Alexander Fleming’s observation of a Penicillium species inhibiting growth of Staphylococcus aureus led to the purification of penicillin by Howard Florey, Norman Heatley, and Ernest Chain. This led to penicillin being the first antibiotic used in clinical treatment. 
While we have a vast many compounds to treat bacterial infections there has been an increasing problem of antibiotic resistant microorganism strains.
  

There are different mechanisms of action taken by different types of antibiotics. 

Picture
    Since antibiotics function to fight bacteria in different ways, antibiotics are going to work on different types of bacteria to varying degrees. The range of bacteria types that an antibiotic or antimicrobial drug is effective on, is called the "SPECTRUM" of the antibiotic. You have probably heard of terms like, broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics.

​     Antimicrobials vary in their effectiveness against bacteria. Some are narrow spectrum and more effective against Gram positive or Gram negative bacteria not both of them. Some are broad spectrum and are effective against both Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria.  

     Some antimicrobials are protein synthesis inhibitors, cell wall inhibitors, DNA or RNA synthesis inhibitors, or vitamin synthesis inhibitors. 

The Kirby-Bauer (or disc diffusion) Method

     The Kirby-Bauer method is a standardized test that is used to determine the sensitivity or resistance of a bacteria to an antimicrobial agent. This test is performed with Mueller-Hinton agar plates and disks that have specific antibiotics and concentrations.  
 
​     Once the disks have been placed on the plate a zone of inhibition around the disk may form and this is what is used to determine if a bacteria is resistant or sensitive to a certain antibiotic. ​
Picture
Picture
By Sommer36 - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=53687902

Confluence Spreading

   For these experiments, it will be important to prepare your plate correctly with your microorganism.  You will need to plate your organism "to confluence". This method of "confluence spreading" is very different from the "streak plate" method. In the streak plate method, the idea is to start with a small amount of microorganism and then progressive dilute the sample by spreading out smaller aliquots of the sample in quadrants. For the confluence method, you will use a cotton swab with a generous amount of organism and completely cover the entire plate with the organism. It is completely fine to go over the same area of your plate a few times, just try to avoid contamination. 
    The disk diffusion agar method tests the effectiveness of antibiotics on a specific microorganism.
  1. An agar plate is first inoculated with the microbe to confluence.
  2. Paper disks of antibiotics are gently placed on top of the nutrient agar using forceps.
  3. Gently press down on top of the paper discs (using forceps) to ensure contact between the discs and the agar has been made.
  4. Incubate 3 - 10 days.
  5. Observe Results.

The amount of space around every antibiotic plate indicates the lethality of that antibiotic on the bacteria in question. Highly effective antibiotics (disk C) will produce a wide ring of no bacterial growth, while an ineffective antibiotic (disk A) will show no change in the surrounding bacterial concentration at all. The effectiveness of intermediate antibiotics (disk B) can be measured using their zone of inhibition. This method is used to determine the best antibiotic to use against a new or drug-resistant pathogen. 
Picture
The disk diffusion agar method tests the effectiveness of antibiotics on a specific microorganism. An agar plate is first spread with bacteria, then paper disks of antibiotics are added. The bacteria is allowed to grow on the agar media, and then observed. The amount of space around every antibiotic plate indicates the lethality of that antibiotic on the bacteria in question. This method is used to determine the best antibiotic to use against a new or drug-resistant pathogen.

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