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    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
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    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
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    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
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    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
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    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
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    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
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    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
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    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
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  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
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  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
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  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
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  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
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  • Virtual Eye Lab
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  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

Practical Practice Video by ScientistCindy

Slide Show

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What is the ​Digestive System?

The digestive system works to convert the food we eat into smaller units our body can absorb and use. It achieves this by
                1) Take in food
                2) Break food up into nutrient molecules
                3) Absorbing nutrient molecules into the circulatory system
                4) Eliminating the indigestible waste

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The organs of the digestive system perform the following six activities: 
  1. Ingestion - taking of food into the mouth.
  2. Propulsion - movement of food through the alimentary canal
    1. Swallowing (voluntary)
    2. Peristalsis - moves food through the alimentary canal by waves of involuntary contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle
  3. Mechanical - the physical processes that break up larger pieces of food into smaller pieces. 
    1. Chewing
    2. Churning processes of the stomach
    3. Rhythmic contraction and relaxation (peristalsis) of smooth muscle of the small intestine.
  4. Digestion -  the chemical decomposition of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids into their simpler building blocks (simple sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids or glycerol, respectively). Digestion is carried out by digestive enzymes and other substances secreted by the accessory organs. The processes of digestion take place in the lumen of the alimentary canal. 
  5. Absorption - the transportation of digested food from the lumen of the alimentary canal into the blood and lymphatic capillaries located in the wall of the canal.
  6. Defecation - the elimination of indigestible substances (wastes) from the body as feces.

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 The digestive system is divided into two main groups: the alimentary canal and the accessory digestive organs. 
     The alimentary canal gets its names from a word meaning "nourishment". The alimentary canal is better known as the gastrointestinal (or G.I.) tract.  The alimentary canal is a continuous tube lined with smooth muscle that extends from the mouth to the anus. The organs that make up the alimentary canal are as follows:
  1. Mouth
  2. Pharynx
  3. Esophagus
  4. Stomach
  5. Small Intestine (small bowel)
  6. Large Intestine (large bowel)
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     Your body is organized as a tube. The inside of the alimentary canal is considered to be OUTSIDE of the body! This is because both ends of the canal are exposed to the external environment. If you were to stretch out your alimentary canal, it would reach up to about 30 feet in length!

The digestive system includes the accessory digestive organs which are as follows:
  1. Teeth
  2. Tongue
  3. Gallbladder
  4. The Large Digestive Glands
    1. The Salivary Glands
    2. The Liver
    3. The Pancreas
The accessory digestive organs function to secrete saliva, bile, and digestive enzymes, that assist to breakdown food. ​

Digestive System Structures of the Head and Neck

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The Oral Cavity

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​The oral cavity (or mouth) contains the teeth, the cheek, the palate and the anterior portion of the tongue. The opening of the mouth is referred to as the oral orifice. The mouth functions to take in food and to contain structures needed for mastication. It also houses the tongue to sense, taste and it assists in the formation of words and sounds for speech. 

Food enters the alimentary canal through the mouth. Food in the mouth is mechanically broken down by chewing and manipulation of the tongue. The food is moistened with saliva to form a bolus of food, that is able to be swallowed. The saliva also contains digestive enzymes which begin to chemically break down some food substances. 

The Salivary Glands

   The salivary glands produce saliva. Saliva is necessary to moisten food to create a bolus (moist ball of food that can be swallowed).
​
    The parotid gland is found outside of the cheek, the sublingual gland lies under the tongue and the submandibular gland lies under the mandible (jaw). 
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Pharynx (Throat)

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   ​    The pharynx is better known as the throat. The throat leads from the nose cavity and the mouth cavity to the esophagus and the trachea. Pharynx is subdivided into the following three sections;
1) the nasopharynx
2) the oropharynx
3) thr laryngopharynx. 

The pharynx has 2 functions:

1)  to warm, moisten and filter air before it reaches the trachea
2) to deliver food to esophagus. 


   The muscular walls of the pharynx function in the process of swallowing, which allows food to be delivered to the esophagus. It serves as a pathway for the movement of food from the mouth to the esophagus. When food is swallowed, it travels from the oral cavity to the oropharynx, then on to the laryngopharynx. The oropharynx and the laryngopharynx are common pathways for both food and air. The inferior portion of the pharynx diverges to form the esophagus (for food delivery) and the trachea (for air exchange). The epiglottis regulates what substances enter the airway of the trachea.

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The Esophagus

   The esophagus is lined with smooth muscle that propels swallowed food to the stomach. The esophagus begins as a continuation of the pharynx and travels downward through thoracic cavity, then through the diaphragm, to enter the abdominal cavity where it meets with the stomach. The function of the esophagus is deliver food from the pharynx to the stomach.
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Food goes down the esophagus and air goes down the trachea.  The epiglottis is a small flap of tissue that covers the trachea when you swallow to prevent food from entering the airways! 
The epiglottis
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The Stomach

The stomach lies inferior to the liver and superior to the transverse colon.
      The stomach contains some main anatomical features. The stomach begins at the cardial sphincter that connects the esophagus to the stomach. Food enters the first portion of the stomach, called the cardial region. The fundus of the stomach is the superior "dome-shaped" region of the stomach that lies just inferior of the diaphragm. The large midportion of the stomach is called the body. As you travel downward through the stomache, the body becomes the pyloric region (which includes the pyloric antrum and pyloric canal) which looks like a funnel. The terminal end of the stomach contains the pyloric sphincter.  The word pylorus means “gatekeeper”.  Living up to its name, the pyloric sphincter controls the entry of partially digested food into the small intestine. 
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From the esophagus, the bolus of food will pass through the cardiac sphincter of the stomach.

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   The function of the cardiac sphincter is to act as a valve that relaxes to allow food to enter the stomach from the esophagus. The cardiac sphincter also functions to prevent stomach acid from traveling upward from the stomach into the esophagus. When the cardiac sphincter fails to prevent this from happening, the result is acid reflux or heart burn. 

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Partially digested food will pass from the stomach to the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter of the stomach.

    The function of the pyloric sphincter is to act as a valve that prevents larger chunks of food to pass onto the duodenum from the stomach. The pyloric valve only allows food that has been broken down into relatively small parts to pass onto the duodenum. The duodenum is considered the first part of the small intestine.
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The Liver and the Gallbladder

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   The liver functions to detoxify chemicals, metabolize drugs, secrete the digestive enzymes in the form of bile, and produces blood clotting factors. In the digestive system, the liver functions to secrete the digestive enzymes in the form of bile which helps to break down fats (lipids). The bile produced in the liver gets stored in the gallbladder which lies directly underneath the liver. The gallbladder's function is to store and concentrate the bile that was made in the liver. Bile can also bypass the gallbladder altogether and get secreted by a different pathway. 

   The destination of the bile is the duodenum of the small intestine. Bile coming from the gallbladder will leave the gallbladder through the cystic duct, then travel through the common bile duct to reach the duodenum. Bile coming from the liver directly, will travel through the hepatic ducts, then the common bile duct, and will end up at the duodenum. Therefore, the cystic duct and the hepatic duct come together to form the common bile duct. 
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The Small Intestines

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​    The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal. It functions to digest food (chyme) and absorb its nutrients. The small intestine is the part of the intestine is where 90% of the digestion and absorption of food occurs.  Digestive enzymes made by the pancreas travel to the duodenum of the small intestine. The small intestines are also lined with smooth muscle that contracts and relaxes to assist digestion and absorption and to move food through the 3 to 5 meters of small intestine you have in your body. This process takes 3 to 6 hours.

Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
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     The small intestine begins at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach and is divided into three sections:
  1. The duodenum
  2. The jejunum
  3. The ileum.  
​    The jejunum is the segment of the small intestine that comes after the duodenum. Most of the nutrients present in food are absorbed by the jejunum before being passed on to the ileum for further absorption.
    The ileum is the last part of the three part tube that makes up the small intestine. It is where the remaining nutrients are absorbed before moving into the large intestine.
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     The stomach transforms your food into a paste-like, partially digested substance called chyme. The chyme leaves the stomach via the pyloric valve, and enters the duodenum which is the first part of the small intestine. The duodenum is the smallest portion of the small intestine. 
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Large Intestine

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    The large intestine is the terminal portion of the alimentary canal (commonly known as the gastrointestinal tract). The large intestine function to absorb water and vitamins while converting undigested food into feces. The large intestine borders the small intestine and can be up to 5 feet long.    
     The large intestine is separated into the following areas:
  1. Cecum
  2. Ascending Colon
  3. Transverse Colon
  4. Descending Colon
  5. Sigmoid Colon
  6. Rectum
  7. Anal Canal 
    Food (or chyme) travels from the ileum of the small intestine to the cecum of the large intestine via the ileocecal valve. The cecum is the beginning of the large intestine. The cecum functions to provides a space for the mixing of bacteria with partially digested food from the small intestine to form feces. 
ascending colon
transverse colon
descending colon
sigmoid colon
The Appendix
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    Extending from the inferior end of the large intestine’s cecum, the human appendix is a narrow outcropping of tissue. whose resemblance to a worm inspired its alternate name, vermiform (worm-like) appendix. The appendix now functions to store immune cells and healthy bacteria (probiotics) that aid digestion. The appendix is sometimes referred to as a vestigial organ, because early humans, the appendix carried enzymes needed to breakdown cellulose. This organ has since lost this function due to evolution.  

The ileocecal valve and the cecum
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Chyme (paste of food with gastric juices) leaves the ileum of the small intestine and enter into the cecum of the large intestine through the ileocecal valve. The ileocecal valve is a sphincter muscle valve that separates the small intestine and the large intestine. It functions to prevent substances flowing back into the ileum once they have reached the cecum. 
Once food has been further broken down in the cecum, it will travel up the ascending colon, across the transverse colon, down the descending colon, then through the sigmoid colon, rectum and finally, out the anus. 

via GIPHY

The main function of the large intestine (also called the colon) is to concentrate and produce waste in the form of feces. 
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As the food makes its journey, some water will be absorbed, leaving behind waste products to be eliminated from the body in the form of feces. 

The Mesentery

     You might recall that body cavities are lined with a specialized epithelium formed by the fusion of two layers of serous membranes. The peritoneum is the serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. The abdominal organs are also called the visceral organs. The mesentery is a double layer of peritoneum that extends from the body wall to the digestive organs.
    A
ll intraperitoneal organs, including both the jejunum and ileum, are attached to the posterior wall of the abdomen by the mesentery. The mesenteries function to hold organs in place, store fat, and allows vessels and nerves to reach the organs. For example, in order for the digestive organs to receive their blood supply, blood vessels branch off the aorta and travel through mesenteries to reach the digestive organs. The majority of the mesenteries connect the posterior abdominal wall to the alimentary canal. There in one mesentery that lies in the superior abdominal which is a ventral mesentery that extends from the stomach and liver.
​The mesenteries function to attach the digestive organs to the abdominal wall.
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Histology of the Jejunum (small intestine)

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In the cross-section of the jejunum, several histological features can be seen. Since the small intestine is essentially a long tube, a cross-section will result in a donut-shaped structure. The central part of the small intestine is filled with liquid called the lumen.
The lumen is lined by the inner-most layer of the jejunum called the mucosa. The mucosa contains finger-like projection called villi which function to increase the surface area. The villi contain simple columnar epithelial cells and goblet cells that secrete mucus. 

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 The layers of the jejunum. starting with the innermost layer, is are the
  1. MUCOSA
    1. has the villi which are lined with columnar epithelial cells and goblet cells.
  2. SUBMICOSA
    1. loose connective tissue underlying the mucosa.
  3. MUSCLE LAYERS
    1. consists of the outer and inner layer of muscle fibers that function to move food through the intestines and to make contact with food for absorbtion of nutrients. The action of these muscles is called paristalsis. 
  4. SEROUS LAYER
    1. connective tissue covered by peritoneum.​
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