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    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
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      • Introduction to the Nervous System
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    • Digestive System
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    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
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    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
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    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
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    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
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    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
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    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
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    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
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    • pH Lab
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    • Volcano Project
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    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
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      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
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      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

THE CHEMICAL BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE

The story of biology begins in chemistry. We must have a basic understanding of chemistry to understand biology. This is because, everything that is made up of matter (from rocks to human beings) is made up of atoms.


THE CHEMICAL BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE

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The story of YOU is more beautiful and complex than you can ever image!    Many scientists believe that our universe started with a "BIG BANG" or a "BIG BANG-LIKE" event. The universe we live in was created by some type of BANG that contained all of the subatomic particles needed to make matter.  In the beginning, the early universe was too hot for atoms to form, but as the universe cooled the simplest atoms were able to form.
   The first atoms to form were hydrogen and helium. Hydrogen is made up of only 1 electron and 1 proton. Helium is made up of 2 electrons and 2 protons. Stars are made up almost entirely of hydrogen and helium. All of the heavier elements are made when a star dies and explodes as a super nova. 

   The matter that you are made of has been around since the beginning of the universe 13 billion years ago. All of the heavier elements required for life like you and I to exist, were form in the cauldron  of an exploding star. We are all made of stars!

The Atom

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Atoms are the fundamental unit of matter. That means that all matter is composed entirely of atoms.

Atoms are made up of a combination of subatomic particles, which are protons, electrons and neutrons. 

PROTONS are positively charged and are found at the nucleus (center) of the atom.

ELECTRONS are negatively charged and are found on the outer portions of the atom.

NEUTRONS have no charge and are found in the nucleus of the atom.
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THE TEAM

   The simplest and most abundant atom in the universe is the hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom contains only one electron and one proton. It is the first element on the Periodic Table of Elements and is abbreviated as H.

The Hydrogen Atom

This texts is to help your site visitors with pressing questions.
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Nobu Nakamura

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Janet Miller

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Regina Martin

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   Electrons contain far less mass than protons and neutrons.  Therefore, essentially all of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus. For this reason, the "mass number" of an element is equal to the average mass in one gram of those atoms. Sometimes this number is rounded so that it is equal to the number of protons AND the number of neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.
   The number of neutrons can fluctuate in atom, turning that atom into an ISOTOPE. However, the number of protons in the nucleus cannot change, without changing the identity of the atom itself. For this reason, we also have a value called the "atomic mass number" which is the number of protons in the nucleus ONLY. 

ISOTOPES

Atoms are neutral and have equal numbers of protons and electrons.
The number of protons defines the identity of the atom.
An isotope is an atom that has a different number of neutrons.
An ion is an atom that has a different number of electrons. 
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   When we look at carbon on the periodic table, we see that carbon has 6 protons, because it has a mass number of 6. Wee also see that it has 6 neutrons, because the atomic mass number is 12 which is the total number of protons and neutrons. 12 = 6 protons + X neutrons   -->  6 neutrons.
  So if I told you I have a carbon atom that has 14 neutrons, you should be able to recognize that as a carbon isotope. Isotopes, especially carbon-14 isotopes are very important to biology. Isotopes decay at a steady rate. Because all lifeforms as we know it are "carbon-based" we can look at the rate of decay of the carbon isotopes in decaying organic matter, and get an estimate of when the organism died. This is the basic premise behind carbon dating!  
    An atom, by definition, is neutral (uncharged). That means in an atom, the number of protons will equal the number of electrons.
   The structure of the atom will dictate its properties. Atoms can create bonds using their outermost electrons.
Atoms are uncharged when they contain equal numbers of electrons and protons. Should an atom acquire an electrostatic charge, it is called an ion ( FIGURE 2.3 ). The addition of one or more elec-trons to an atom means there is/are more nega-tively charged electrons than positively charged protons. Such a negatively charged ion is called an anion. By contrast, the loss of one or more electrons leaves the atom with extra protons and yields a positively charged ion, called a cation. As we will see, ion formation is important to some forms of chemical bonding.  The negatively charged electron(s) will orbit the positively charged nucleus of the atom in an electron shell or energy level.  
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     Atoms can either gain or lose electrons from their outermost shell and become charged. A charged atom is called an ION. An atom that gains 1 electron will become an ion with a -1 charge. An atom that gains 2 electrons will will become an ion having a charge of -2. An atom that gains 3 electrons will become an ion with a -3 charge... and so on.
     This works the other way too. When an atom loses 1 electron, it will become an ion with +1 charge. When an atom loses 2 electrons, it will become an ion with +2 charge. When an atom loses 3 electrons, it will become an ion with +3 charge... and so on.  

   Remember that electrons are negatively charged, so loosing an electron, means gaining positive charge. An ion that is positively charged, is called a CATION. Conversely, gaining an electron means gaining a negative charge. An ion that is negatively charged, is called an ANION.  
   I like to think of the charge resulting from the gain or loss of electrons like a nasty pimple. Pimples are negative. We usually don't really want them around and we probably want to get rid of them right away. Since pimples are seen as something negative (like the charge on an electron), when this diva LOOSES her pimple it is a positive thing!
   If she has 2 pimples and looses them it is 2 times as positive and loosing just one, and so on. When you loose something negative it is a positive thing.
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   This works in reverse too. If this diva is getting ready to go out and she GAINS a pimple (something that is negative) that is a negative thing. If gains 4 pimples, then WOW, that's quadruple the negativity!
The electron in the outermost shell determines an atom’s ability to create bonds with other atoms. A carbon atom has 4 electrons in a valence shell that holds 8. Carbon is able to completes its outer shell by sharing electrons with other atoms in four covalent bonds.

CARBON IS KEY!

   All life as we know it is carbon-based. ​The reason for this is that carbon is the most versatile element, since it is able to form 4 strong bonds. This allows for a vast array of carbon-based molecules (called organic molecules) to form. Carbon is able to form large complex molecules. Organic molecules tend to carry a number of hydrogen atoms as well. 
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     The most important elements for life are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. Surprisingly, our bodies (as well as all biological entities) is more that 98% carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen.   

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   E​ach shell has space for only a limited number of electrons. The shell that is closest to the nucleus is considered the shell at the lowest energy level. This shell can hold as many as 2 electrons, and no more. 
   The second shell is further away from the nucleus and is at a higher energy level than the 1st shell. It has a larger volume and can hold a total of 8 electrons. The third shell is even further away from the nucleus and has an even larger volume that can hold up to 18 electrons. 
WATER

 Life and its chemistry are tied to water. Life began in water and evolved there for 3 billion years before spreading onto land. And all life, even land-dwelling life, is still dependent on water.  Your cells are 75% water. The composition of the water surrounding the cells (extracellular fluid) is similar to sea water. When life evolved to move out of the ocean, we had to take the ocean with us! Water is the most abundant compound on the surface of Earth.

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Types of Bonding
- ionic
- covalent (polar and non-polar)
- hydrogen bonds
  • hydrogen bonds  in water
  • the positively charged atom in this type of attraction is always a hydrogen atom.
  • each hydrogen atom of a water molecule can form a hydrogen bond with a nearby partially negative oxygen atom of another water molecule.
  •  And the negative (oxygen) pole of a water molecule can form hydrogen bonds to two hydrogen atoms.
 
 The  Life-Supporting Properties of Water include:
  1. Hydrogen bonds between molecules of liquid water last for only a few trillionths of a second, yet at any instant, many molecules are hydrogen-bonded to others.
This tendency of molecules of the same kind to stick together, called cohesion, is much stronger for water than for most other liquids.The cohesion of water is important in the living world. 

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Water is considered a POLAR molecule Since it is slightly negative on one end, and slightly positive on the other end! The Polarity of water allows it to have the ability to dissolving a variety of different substances! This is why water is called the UNIVERSAL SOLVENT. Water can dissolve more substances than any other molecule!
   Also, atoms have to get close enough to react in order to form molecules.... And, since ATOMS DON'T have legs... The atoms are able to find each other as they float around in water.  In water, atoms can easily travel and react!
  Water is resistant to temperature change. Thermal energy is the energy associated with the random movement of atoms and molecules. Thermal energy in transfer from a warmer to a cooler body of matter is defined as heat. Temperature measures the intensity of heat—that is, the average speed of molecules in a body of matter. If you have ever burned your finger on a metal pot while waiting for the water in it to boil, you know that water heats up much more slowly than metal. In fact, because of hydrogen bonding, water has a stronger resistance to temperature change than most other substances.
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     Amazingly, 96% of all biological matter is made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. If we add in phosphorus and sulfur, that brings the total to 98% of all biological matter. This includes both eukaryotic organisms and bacterial cells alike. (You can think of CHNOPS as a helpful acronym to help remember these six important elements.)

Trace amounts of other elements may also be needed depending on the organism. These usually include sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn).

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