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    • dissection of the fetal pig
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    • Case Study One
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    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
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    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
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    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
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  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
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      • Predation
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    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
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    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
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    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
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  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
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  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
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      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
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      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
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      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
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    • A History of Human Biology
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    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
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  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
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    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
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    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
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      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
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    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
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    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
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    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
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  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
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  • Anatomy
    • Anatomy - CMC Home Page
      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
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    • Anatomy Basics
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      • A History of Anatomy
      • Levels of Organization
      • Anatomical Positions
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      • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

LEVELS OF ANATOMICAL ORGANIZATION

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Hierarchical Levels of
​Anatomy

There are six hierarchical levels of anatomy and physiology.

          (1) Chemical level
          (2) Cellular level
          (3) Tissue level
          (4) Organ level
          (5) Organ system level
          (6) Organism level

The Chemical Level

ATOMS - What's the MATTER?
     All matter in the universe as we know it, is made up of atoms. It is for this reason that we define the atom as the fundamental unit of matter. An atom is made up of subatomic particles. The nucleus (or center) of the atom is made up of one or more positively charged subatomic particles called protons and uncharged subatomic particles called neutrons. Almost all of the mass of the atom is located in the nucleus. Electrons "orbit" the nucleus of the atom. The electron(s) that are located on the outermost portion of the atom can participate in chemical reactions and can create bonds with other atoms.
Picture
 Carbon is the element that we believe is necessary for LIFE.
It has 4 Valence electrons = 4 electrons in the outer shell = 4 electrons are available for bonding.  Thus, carbon is able to make up to 4 strong bonds. carbon-based molecules can form a wide variety of shapes and long chains. 

Carbon Bonding
Carbon has 4 electrons available to form bonds with other atoms. This is why you will always see four lines connecting a carbon atom to other atoms.  Each line represents a BOND that is formed by a pair of shared electrons (one electron from carbon and one from another atom).  Each line represent a bond made with 1 valence electron from each atom participating in the bond. For example,  methane (CH4)  is a small organic molecule made up of one Carbon atom bound to 4 Hydrogen atoms. 
 


Picture
CARBON-BASED LIFE-FORMS
All living things consist of organic molecules, centered around the element carbon. Organic molecules evolved before cells, perhaps as long as 4 billion years ago. Complex molecules can be formed by stringing carbon atoms together in a straight line or by connecting carbons together to form rings. 

Complex molecules can be formed by stringing carbon atoms together in a straight line or by connecting carbons together to form rings. The presence of nitrogen, oxygen, and other atoms adds variety to these carbon molecules.

C H O N = Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen = 96% of living things

 

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Primitive cells
The first cells consisted of little more than an organic molecule such as RNA inside a lipid membrane.
One cell (or group of cells), called the last universal common ancestor (LUCA), gave rise to all subsequent life on Earth.
Photosynthesis evolved by 3 billion years ago and released oxygen into the atmosphere.
Cellular respiration evolved after that to make use of the oxygen.


MAKE SURE YOU KNOW THESE!!
Four important classes of organic molecules
Carbohydrates (sugars)
Lipids (fats)
proteins
nucleic acids ( RNA and DNA )

 
Lipids

Lipids are a class of substances that are insoluble in water. They are hydrophobic (water-fearing).
There are three major groups of lipids:
 1)  Triglycerides - fats, oils, and waxes.
 2) Phospholipids – makes up cell membranes. Will spontaneously form a membrane in water in the lab!
 3) Steroids - hormones


Phospholipids are the major component of cell membranes. Phospholipids are structurally similar to fats, except that they contain only two fatty acids attached to glycerol instead of three. they consist of a hydrophillic (polar) head and 2 hydrophobic (non-polar) tails.
Amphiphilic.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids spontaneously form a double-lipid bilayer (like the cell membrane) in water.

 


Carbohydrates

Sugar molecules have the formula (CH2O) n , where n is any number from 3 to 8. For glucose, n is 6, and its formula is C6H12O6. The formula for fructose is also C6H12O6, but as you can see in Figure 1, the placement of the carbon atoms is different. 
Carbohydrates are classified into three groups according to the number of sugar (or saccharide) molecules present:

1) monosaccharides  ( mono = 1,   saccharide = sugar )
2) disaccharides ( di = 2,   saccharide = sugar )
3) polysaccharides  ( poly = many,   saccharide = sugar )




 
Nucleic Acids
DNA and RNA are built from single units (monomers) of nucleic acids.
DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA = Ribonucleic acid
 
​PROTEINS
Nearly every dynamic function in your body depends on proteins.
A protein is a polymer of small building blocks called amino acids.
 Of all of life’s molecules, proteins are structurally and functionally the most elaborate and varied.
 
Proteins
Proteins are polymers of amino acids.
 
Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalyzing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to another.

via GIPHY

MOLECULES
​     When an atom forms a bond with one or more other atoms, it is called a molecule. A molecule is made up of one or more atoms. Sometimes these molecules are small and simple. We can take oxygen as an example. Oxygen is a gas that is made up of simply 2 oxygen molecules that are bound together (02
).  Some molecules consist of thousands of atoms (macromolecules) like DNA and proteins.
ANIMATED GIF Courtesy of Source imgur.com ​
Picture
Animated GIF courtesy of ​http://giphy.com/gifs/black-and-white-life-99XYfEEF2QV7a    

via GIPHY

The Cellular Level

     The cell is the fundamental unit of life. All living things are made up of one or more cells. You came from just one cell! You started out as a zygote, which is a fertilized egg. From there you began to undergo rapid cellular division (see GIF) which lead to the exponential growth that made the cute, bouncing baby that was YOU! Pretty amazing!

     Cells and their surroundings are made up of molecules. It takes about 100 trillion atoms to make a typical cell. Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids are arguably the 4 most important molecules for the cell,
and for life in general.    

The Tissue Level

via GIPHY

via GIPHY

NOT THESE TISSUES!
Source:www.emmadarvick.com
Picture
Picture
Cells of similar types come together to form tissues. A TISSUE is a group of two or more cells (of similar  function or origin) that come together to perform a common function.

Tissue level:
​

There are 4 types of tissues 
  1.  Epithelial (skin) Tissue
  2. Connective Tissue
  3. Nervous Tissue
  4. Muscle Tissue
Epithelial and Connective Tissue
By Rollroboter - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=32009339
Picture
Section of epididymis.
Connective tissue (
blue) is seen supporting the epithelium (purple)
Muscle Tissue
The body contains three types of muscle tissue: (a) skeletal muscle, (b) smooth muscle, and (c) cardiac muscle. From top, LM × 1600, LM × 1600, LM × 1600
​. (Micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Picture
By OpenStax College - Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun 19, 2013., CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30015032

The Organ Level

Picture
An organ is a discrete structure made up of more than 2 different tissue types that work together as a functional unit for the body.  The major organs of the human body are listed and illustrated here.

Organs that are found anywhere in the ventral cavity, can be referred to as visceral organs. The word "visceral" or "viscera" refers specifically to the internal organs that lie in the thoracic or abdominal regions of the body, such as the heart, lungs, liver, stomach or intestines. In a figurative sense, something "visceral
" is felt "deep down."

​The Organ System Level

Picture
There 1 Organ Systems of the Human Body. An organ system is a group of organs and associated structures that perform a specific function in the body. 
There are 11 organ systems. 
  1. The circulatory system
  2. The respiratory system
  3. The digestive system
  4. The excretory system
  5. The nervous system
  6. The endocrine system
  7. The immune system
  8. The integumentary system
  9. The skeletal system
  10. The muscle system
  11. The reproductive system
Picture
The circulatory system (or cardiovascular system) includes the heart, the blood and the blood vessels. The function of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hormones, around the body.

Picture
The skeletal system includes the 206 named bones of the body, as well as the tendons, ligaments and cartilage that actively support it. The function of the skeletal system is to allow for movement, provide structure, produce blood cells and to store calcium. 

Picture
The integumentary system includes the skin, the hair and the nails of the body.  It is also considered an organ.  In fact, the integumentary system is the body's largest organ. This system provides protection and helps regulate body temperature.  

Picture
   The digestive system includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. There are also accessory digestive organs like the liver and pancreas that assist the digestive system.  The function of the digestive system is to break down food, absorb nutrients, and eliminate waste as feces. ​
Picture
The immune system is the body's defense against disease. The immune system includes the includes, the thymus and the leukocytes (white blood cells) of the body. 

​

The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts and lymph vessels, and also plays a role in the body's defenses. Its main job is to make is to make and move lymph, a clear fluid that contains white blood cells, which help the body fight infection. The lymphatic system also removes excess lymph fluid from bodily tissues, and returns it to the blood.

Picture
The nervous system includes the brain, the spinal cord, peripheral nerves and sensory receptors. The nervous system senses the conditions of our internal and our external environments. Responses and commands are sent from the brain and spinal cord to muscles of the body. Much of the function of the nervous system is not under conscious control. 

Picture
The endocrine system includes the eight major glands of the body that secrete hormones. Hormones function to regulate many of the body's functions including growth, metabolism, and sexual reproduction.

Picture
The muscular system includes all of the muscles in the body. This includes the skeletal muscles which allow us to move parts of our body at will, and the smooth muscles which moves substances through the body, and the cardiac muscle which lies exclusively in the heart. Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle are involuntary and are not under conscious control. 
Picture
The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The male reproductive system includes the penis and the testes, which produce sperm. The female reproductive system consists of the vagina, the uterus and the ovaries, which produce eggs. During conception, a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, which creates a fertilized egg that implants and grows in the uterus. ​v
Picture
Picture

The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen and expel carbon dioxide in a process we call breathing. It consists mainly of the trachea, the diaphragm and the lungs.


Picture
The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea from the body, which is produced when certain foods are broken down. The whole system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra. Urine produced by the kidneys travels down the ureters to the bladder, and exits the body through the urethra.

​The Organism Level

The level of the organism looks at how all of the anatomical structure of body work together to provide all of the necessary function for life. 
Picture



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