SCIENTIST CINDY
  • Home
  • Anatomy
    • Anatomy - CMC Home Page
      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
      • Practical Exam #3
      • Practical Exam #4
      • Practical Exam #5
      • Practical Exam #6
      • Lab Quiz 4
      • Lab Quiz 5
    • Anatomy Basics
      • Intro to Anatomy
      • Medical Terminology
      • A History of Anatomy
      • Levels of Organization
      • Anatomical Positions
      • Anatomical Planes
      • Anatomical Regions
      • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System
  • Home
  • Anatomy
    • Anatomy - CMC Home Page
      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
      • Practical Exam #3
      • Practical Exam #4
      • Practical Exam #5
      • Practical Exam #6
      • Lab Quiz 4
      • Lab Quiz 5
    • Anatomy Basics
      • Intro to Anatomy
      • Medical Terminology
      • A History of Anatomy
      • Levels of Organization
      • Anatomical Positions
      • Anatomical Planes
      • Anatomical Regions
      • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY

Skeletal Muscle

The Muscle Cell / Myocyte / Muscle Fiber

    A myocyte (also known as a muscle cell or a muscle fiber) is the type of cell found in muscle tissue. Myocytes are long, tubular cells that develop from myoblasts to form muscles in a process known as myogenesis.

    There are various specialized forms of myocytes: cardiac, skeletal, and smooth 
muscle cells
, with various properties.
Picture
      Skeletal muscle is mostly under conscious / voluntary control of the central nervous system as part of the somatic division of the motor peripheral nervous system.   Skeletal muscle tissue is the only type of muscle tissue that is under conscious (or voluntary) control via your somatic nervous system. Your brain sends signals down your spinal cord that connects with peripheral nerves to command the muscles to contract or to relax.
  Skeletal muscle is the type of muscle that most people envision when the word 'muscle' is used. These are the noticeable muscles that can give shape to our skin and act to move the various parts of your body at will. Skeletal muscles are able to move parts of our body because they are attached to skeletal bones through structures of fibrous connective tissue called tendons.  

The Structure of Skeletal Muscle

Picture

The Structure of Skeletal Muscle

  • A skeletal muscle (like the biceps shown in the illustration) is a collection of muscle bundles or fascicles. Each fascicle is made up of a number of muscle cells (or myofibers or muscle fibers). Each muscle cell is composed of hundreds to thousands of myofibrils. Each myofibril is composed of many myosin thick filaments and actin thin filaments.
  • The bundles of long, cylindrical fascicles are bundled together and covered by a protective membrane called the EPIMYSIUM. 
  • The muscle fibers are bundled together and covered by a protective membrane called the PERIMYSIUM. 
  • The wispy sheath of connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle fiber is called the ENDOMYSIUM. 
  • Each individual MUSCLE FIBER / MYOCYTE / MUSCLE CELL is composed of multiple long, cylindrical fibers called MYOFIBRILS. 
  • ​Each MYOFIBRIL contains a long string of repeated units called SARCOMERES.
  • Each SARCOMERE contains overlapping myofilaments
    • The MYOFILAMENTS are the
      • ACTIN THIN FILAMENTS
      • MYOSIN THICK FILAMENTS
Picture
Picture

The Structure of a Muscle Fiber

• A myocyte (also known as a muscle cell or a muscle fiber) is the type of cell found in muscle tissue.
•Myocytes are long, tubular cells that develop from myoblasts to form muscles in a process known as myogenesis.
Picture
    Skeletal muscle fibers are extremely long, cylindrical cells. A single muscle fiber can be up to a foot long in some muscles. This unique property is made possible, because the muscle fiber itself is actually formed from the fusion of literally hundreds of embryonic cells that get fused together during development. 

 SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS ARE MULTI-NUCLEATED

    Since skeletal muscle cells (muscle fibers) are made from the fusion of hundreds of embryonic cells, they contain many nuclei. In other words, they are multinucleated. You will notice that the nuclei lie on the outer portion of the muscle fiber when examining skeletal tissue under the microscope. ​

Picture
 SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS ARE STRIATED
​

   Skeletal muscle fibers have 'stripes' called striations. These striations are due to the presence of the myofibrils that make up the major portion of the muscle fiber.
    
    The muscle fiber is a long cylinder that contains bundles of smaller, long cylinders, called myofibrils. Myofibrils contain the myofilaments necessary for muscle contraction. A myofibril is composed of repeating segments called sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the basic unit of contraction in skeletal muscle. The striations occur due to the presence of the sarcomeres of the myofibrils. 
     

Striated muscle tissue consists of myocytes that appear to be striped  (transversely) with alternating dark and light bands of color. These striations are visible when the muscle tissue is viewed histologically (on a slide).  Each elongated, cylindrical unit is a skeletal muscle cell, called a muscle fiber or myocyte.

Picture
THE SARCOLEMMA
  • The plasma membrane of skeletal muscle cells has a special name; the sarcolemma.
  • The sarcolemma is unique, because it continues deep into the muscle cell to form the “T-tubules” or “transverse tubules”.
THE TRANSVERSE TUBULES (T-TUBULES)
  • The t-tubules are continuous with the sarcolemma. 
  • The fluid that fills the lumen (inner liquid) of the t-tubule is considered extracellular space.
THE SARCOPLASM (MYOPLASM)
  • The intracellular fluid of a muscle fiber is referred to as the myoplasm or sarcoplasm. Within the sarcoplasm, there are numerous specialized structures which are unique to muscle fibers. 
THE SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM: 
  • The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a highly specialized structure that is tightly wrapped around individual myofibrils.
  • The sarcoplasmic reticulum functions to store high concentration of Ca2+ which is releases upon sufficient depolarization triggered by the action of  Release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum is responsible for triggering muscular. ​

​General structure of a muscle cell and neuromuscular junction:​
Picture
​
     Skeletal muscle is consciously (voluntarily) controlled by the (somatic) nervous system. The point at which the motor neuron synapses with (comes into close proximity to) the muscle fiber is called the neuromuscular junction.
 
​

Structure of the
Neuromuscular Junction

  1. Axon
  2. Neuromuscular junction
  3. Muscle fiber (Myocyte)
  4. Myofibril
IMAGE Courtesy of CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=282900
Picture
The Sliding Filament Model of Muscle Contraction 

The striations of skeletal muscle fibers are due to the presence of repeated units called sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the functional unit of muscle contraction. The sarcomere contains filaments which slide past each other, contracting (shortening) the cell upon command from the nervous system.    
The sarcomere is the functional unit of striated muscle. Let's look at the cross-bridge within the context of a single sarcomere to understand how contraction occurs.
​

Cross-Bridge Cycling
 In order for the muscle to contract the actin and the myosin molecules of the thin and thick filaments have to interact with one another.
 When the actin and myosin interact, they are said to be connected by cross-bridges. The cross-bridges refer to the myosin head groups that interact with a myosin-binding site on actin.

Picture
Those myofibrils are composed of contractile units called SARCOMERES. 
PROTEINS of MUSCLE SARCOMERE
  • A. Contractile proteins
    • 1. Myosin (gives rise to the thick filaments)
    • 2. Actin (gives rise to the thin filaments)
  • B. Regulatory proteins
    • 1. Tropomyosin (in the absence of Ca2+, it covers the myosin-binding site of actin)
    • 2.Troponin (Ca2+ sensor)

  •    Two regulatory proteins closely interact with actin. A regulatory protein called tropomyosin normally lies over the binding sites and prevents the interaction of the myosin head group with actin. When the myoplasmic Ca2+ concentration is low at its resting level, tropomyosin covers the myosin binding site of actin. The binding of Ca2+ to troponin moves the troponin-tropomyosin complex out of the way exposing the myosin binding site. This allows the myosin head to interact with actin. Actin makes up the thin filaments of the sarcomere. The actin units have myosin binding sites. When calcium is present, myosin is able to bind to the myosin binding site of on actin. It can do this because the myosin head has an actin binding site on it!

       When calcium is not present, then muscle is relaxed. When the muscle is relaxed, tropomyosin covers the myosin binding sites on actin thin filaments which prevents cross-bridge formation. When the muscle receives enough stimulation from the nervous system to initiate muscle contraction, calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm. Once calcium is in the sarcoplasm, calcium binds to tropomyosin and causes a change in conformation (shape) which pulls the troponin-tropomysin complex away from the myosin binding sites, allowing cross-bridge formation and muscular contraction to occur. ​


 

Events That lead to muscle fiber contraction
Muscle fiber contraction requires the following steps:
  • Membrane Depolarization / Fiber Activation: The fiber must be activated or stimulated by a nerve (motor neuron)so that the membrane/sarcolemma becomes depolarized (the membrane potential becomes less negative due to an influx of positively charged sodium ions).
  • Action Potential Generation: The change in membrane potential must be strong enough to generate an action potential in the sarcolemma.
  • Action Potential Propagation: Once the action potential is initiated, it will be propagated along the sarcolemma.
  • Calcium Release: Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
How do muscles contract?
The whole process really begins with the command from the central nervous system.
The decision to make a conscious movement is made in the brain.
The command to move is sent from the brain’s motor cortex and travels down the spinal cord, to the motor nerve (directly or indirectly).
The signal initiating movement of the muscle travels from the central nervous system to the motor nerve (motor neuron).
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
The signal reaches the terminal end (called the axon terminal) of the motor neuron causing the release of the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine.
 The signal reaches the terminal end (called the axon terminal) causing calcium channels to open.
The influx of calcium in the axon terminal causes the release of the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine.
The signal reaches the terminal end (called the axon terminal) causing calcium channels to open.
The influx of calcium in the axon terminal causes the release of the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine.
Acetylcholine diffuses passively across the synaptic cleft and transiently binds to post- synaptic (nicotinic) receptors.
This binding causes the receptors to open, allowing an influx of sodium ions into the muscle fiber.
 
Events That lead to muscle fiber contraction
  • Action potential arrives at axon terminal of the motor neuron at neuromuscular junction
  • Acetylcholine (Ach) is released
  • Ach binds to receptors on the sarcolemma
  • Ion permeability of sarcolemma changes
  • Local change in membrane voltage (depolarization) occurs
  • Local depolarization (end plate potential) ignites AP in sarcolemma
Events That lead to muscle fiber contraction
  • AP travels across the entire sarcolemma
  • AP travels along T tubules
  • SR releases Ca2+
Events That lead to muscle fiber contraction
  • Ca2+ binds to troponin which exposes the myosin-binding sites on actin
Troponin changes conformation when it binds calcium, and that moves the tropomyosin away from the myosin binding sites, allowing cross-bridge formation and muscular contraction.
  •  Myosin heads bind to actin; contraction begins
  • Binding of myosin cross-bridges to the binding sites on G-actin molecules.
  • Power stroke of the cross-bridges and movement of the thin filaments over the thick filaments.
  • Continued cross-bridge cycling for as long as ATP is present and Ca2+ concentrations remain high in the myoplasm.
  • Muscle shortening and/or tension development.

Cross-Bridge Cycle

Picture
Picture
Step 1.
    In this step, the myosin head interacts tightly with a G-actin of the thin filament.

 The part of the myosin head group that interacts with actin is referred to as the actin- binding site, and the part of the G-actin molecule that interacts with myosin is referred to as the myosin-binding site. The myosin head makes a 45-degree angle with the thick filament. This is referred to as the rigor state because if there is no ATP  present (such as after death), the thin and thick filaments maintain this tight interaction rendering the muscle very stiff (RIGORMORTIS).

Picture
Step 2.
   ​   
In this step, an ATP molecule binds to the nucleotide-binding site of the myosin head. Binding of ATP causes the release of the myosin head from the G-actin molecule.
    In addition to the actin-binding site, the myosin head also has a nucleotide- binding site. This is a site where ATP and ADP interact with myosin.

Picture
Step 3.
   Myosin is an ATPase (myosin ATPase) in that it has the ability to hydrolyze ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi). In this step, the myosin head converts the bound ATP to ADP and Pi. Both ADP and Pi remain bound to the myosin head.

Picture
Step 4.
   The energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP is used to change the conformation of the myosin head, so that now it makes a 90-degree angle with the thick filament.  This change in conformation “energizes” the myosin head (i.e., it places it in a high-energy state). At this point, if sufficient Ca2+ is present in the cytoplasm (see Excitation-Contraction Coupling below), the myosin head attaches to a G-actin one or two positions away from the one bound in Step 1.  
​
   If there is not enough Ca2+ present in the cytoplasm, the myosin head remains in this energized 90-degree angle. A rise in cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration is essential and evokes a series of events that facilitates the binding of myosin head to G-actin again. Please note that the relaxed state refers to the muscle cell and not to the conformation of the myosin molecule. At rest, most skeletal muscle fibers are in this “relaxed state”.

Picture
Step 5.
​   This is the power stroke step.  Now Pi is released from the myosin head.  As Pi  is released, the energized 90-degree angle myosin head begins to assume its original 45- degree angle.

 However, as it is bound to a G-actin of the thin filament, the change back  to the 45-degree angle moves the actin thin filament toward the center of the sarcomere (M line)

Picture
Step 6.
   At this point, ADP is released from the myosin head, and the myosin head remains tightly bound to the G-actin. This brings us back to the beginning of the cycle at Step 1. If there is ATP around (and if the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration is high; see below), the cycle will repeat itself again and again. The repeated action of the cross- bridge cycle results in the sliding of the thin filaments over the thick filaments, which will lead to muscle shortening.
 
It is important to emphasize that the cross-bridge cycle can take place only if the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration is high. Thus, when skeletal muscles are at rest and the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration is low, the cross-bridge cycle does not take place. Instead, the myosin head groups remain in an “energized” state.

The cross-bridge  cycle may be arbitrarily divided into six steps:

Picture
The Muscle Twitch
A muscle twitch is the minimum muscle response to a single action potential generated by a motor neuron. A single muscle twitch, which is a single contraction in response to a brief threshold stimulation. Threshold stimulation: the smallest amount of stimulation that result in  sarcomere shortening. A threshold stimulation is the smallest amount of stimulation that will actually result in a contraction. If we administer a single threshold stimulus in a lab, we get a single muscle twitch in response. We can measure this with a Myogram. Excitatory input from the motor neuron must reach a minimum threshold (minimum level) to trigger the flood of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, in order for any muscular repose to occur.

Every twitch has three distinct phases:
Latent period.
  • This is the lag time due to the time needed for the action potential to spread through the sarcolemma and T-tubules and trigger calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 
  • No tension in muscle, no force is generated yet.
Period of contraction.
  • Cross bridges are forming.
  • The muscle tenses.
  •  If the tension becomes great enough to overcome the resistance of the load, the muscle shortens.
Period of relaxation.
  • Ca2+ reenters the SR.
  • The number of active cross bridges is declining.
  • Contractile force is declining.
  • Muscle tension decreases to zero.
  • Myogram tracing returns to the baseline.
  It is Important to be Able to Distinguish Between the Origin and the Insertion Point of a Muscle.     This information will tell us the function of the muscle. Remember that structure equals function!
    Skeletal muscles attach to at least 2 bones, and span one movable joint. The way that these muscles attach to the bones of your body, is through TENDONS. Muscles always PULL they never PUSH.  When a muscle contracts, it pulls the bones it connects to closer to one another, by decreasing the angle of the movable joint that is spans. 
    Typically, when we contract a muscle, one of the bones the muscle attaches to moves a lot, while the other bone(s) the muscle attaches to remains relatively "fixed" in space.
  • The origin is the attachment site that remains relatively "fixed in space" during muscle contraction
  • The insertion is the attachment site that moves quite a bit during muscle contraction. 
The insertion is usually distal, or further away, while the origin is proximal, or closer to the body, relative to the insertion. For example, one could say the wrist is distal to the elbow. Conversely, you can say the elbow is proximal to the wrist.
Muscular contraction produces an action, or a movement of the appendage. We will use examples to describe how the origin and insertion affect the action of a skeletal muscle.
    
Picture
Muscle contraction results in different types of movement. The particular movement is a direct result of the muscle attachment.  Each of these actions can be described in one of two ways.
  1. You can describe a muscle's action in terms of the bone to which the muscle is attached to or the appendage that is moved. For example, the biceps brachii performs flexion of the forearm as the forearm is moved.
  2. You can describe a muscle's action in terms of the joint that is moved upon the contraction of that muscle. For example, that same muscle, the biceps brachii, performs flexion at the elbow, in which the elbow is the joint.

One way to describe muscle action is by the bone that is involved.

Muscle Functional Roles: The human body has over 500 muscles responsible for all types of movement. Each of these muscles has a name; for example, again, the biceps brachii and now the triceps brachii, responsible for both forearm flexion and forearm extension, respectively. When movement of a body part occurs, muscles work in groups rather than individually. Working together enhances a particular movement. During that particular movement, individual muscles will play different roles depending on their origin and insertion.

Groups of muscles are involved in most movements and names are used to describe the role of each muscle involved. Agonists, or prime movers, are responsible for the bulk of the action. Antagonist contractions are opposite that of the agonist and serve to control the action. Finally, synergist muscles enhance the action of the agonist.
Muscles can be described according to the Action of that Muscle, INCLUDING: 
  • agonists (or prime movers)
  • antagonists
  • synergists
Picture
Let's take a look at forearm flexion and identify the roles of the different muscles involved. The biceps brachii is the agonist in forearm flexion. An agonist, or as I said before, a prime mover, is the muscle that is primarily responsible for the movement described: forearm flexion. The action makes sense when you consider the muscle's points of attachment.
The biceps brachii originates on the front of the scapula of the shoulder and inserts on the front of the radius in the forearm. Due to these attachments, contraction and muscle shortening of the biceps flexes the forearm.
The triceps is the antagonist, and its action opposes that of the agonist. The triceps brachii originates on the back of the scapula and humerus, and inserts on the back of the ulna in the forearm.
Due to these attachments, the triceps is stretched during forearm flexing. Stretching the muscle causes the triceps muscle to contract and, thus, slow flexion. It's important to note that the antagonist contraction is minor in comparison to the agonist contraction, and therefore it doesn't prevent the action of the agonist. Rather, antagonist contraction controls the movement by slowing it down and making it smooth.

The antagonist action helps control the muscle movement.

Agonists and antagonists are always functional opposites. Additionally, these muscles switch roles with opposite movements. Let's take a look at an example. The triceps brachii becomes the agonist - while the biceps brachii is the antagonist - when we extend our forearm.
A synergist is a muscle that enhances the action of the agonist. For example, the brachialis is a synergist of the biceps brachii during forearm flexion. The brachialis originates on the humerus, and it inserts on the front of the ulna. As these attachments of the brachialis are similar in nature to those of the biceps brachii, so is its action. Oftentimes, synergist muscles are needed to get a particular action started.
Skeletal muscles are attached to bones on each end by tendons. The origin is the fixed attachment, while the insertion moves with contraction. The action, or particular movement of a muscle, can be described relative to the joint or the body part moved.
Muscles CONTRACT (SHRINK) - Muscles always PULL they never PUSH. 
Picture
​

•When a muscle contracts, it pulls the bones it connects to closer to one another, by decreasing the angle of the movable joint that is spans. 
    

Here’s Proof!
•In this “muscle machine”, it is the “pulling action” of the biceps muscles that exerts the force that pulls the arm upwards.
•AND…it is the “pulling action” of the triceps muscles that exerts the force that pulls the arm Downwards.
Picture

Curious About ScientistCindy?

Location

Upland, CA
​USA

WebSite

WWW.ScientistCindy.Com
WWW.PhunnyPhysiology.Com
WWW.BiologicalSciencesUniversity.Com

Email

ABOUT
Send email inquiries to ScientistCindy@gmail.com
Photo used under Creative Commons from roonb
  • Home
  • Anatomy
    • Anatomy - CMC Home Page
      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
      • Practical Exam #3
      • Practical Exam #4
      • Practical Exam #5
      • Practical Exam #6
      • Lab Quiz 4
      • Lab Quiz 5
    • Anatomy Basics
      • Intro to Anatomy
      • Medical Terminology
      • A History of Anatomy
      • Levels of Organization
      • Anatomical Positions
      • Anatomical Planes
      • Anatomical Regions
      • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System