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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
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      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
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      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
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    • dissection of the fetal pig
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    • In-Vitro Fertilization
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    • Genetics of Reproduction
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    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
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    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
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    • pH Lab
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    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
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    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
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    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
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    • Biogeochemical Recycling
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    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
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    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
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    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
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        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
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      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
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    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

bacteria

IN THE BEGINNING...

Picture
​    Scientists predict that our home, planet Earth, probably formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Around 4.3 billion years ago, the Earth began to cool, allowing land, water and the atmosphere to develop. 

    Early Earth was wrought with active volcanoes and asteroid strikes. The oldest traces of what might be considered "life" are 3.8 billion years old. However, these entities (chemofossils) are so foreign to what we consider to be "living" today, scientists are still debating on if these chemofossils can be considered a true life-form. This chemofossil was found nestled inside 3.8 billion year old rock found in Greenland.  The fossil contained phosphatic minerals and carbon. Living organisms have a characteristic ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-13 (this is what allows for dead organic matter to be carbon-dated). This chemofossil exhibited the characteristic carbon-12 to carbon-13 ratio characteristic of once living organisms!

All Early Organisms Were Prokaryotic

Cyanobacteria (a type of prokaryotic organism) were among the first organisms to exist on planet Earth (3.5 Billion Years Ago) 

PictureFossilized Cyanobacteria
      Scientists have discovered fossils of prokaryotic organisms that lived as far back as 3..5 billion years ago. Prokaryotic organisms are organisms that are made up (almost exclusively) of a single prokaryotic cell. The vast majority of prokaryotic organisms are microscopic, meaning that they are only visible with the aid of a microscope. For this reason, prokaryotic organisms are called "microbes".

PictureCyanobacteria
  The oldest fossils we currently have on record are of cyanobacteria, formerly called "blue-green algae". Before more was known about these organisms, they were called blue-green algae, because of their resemblance to true algae. However, cyanobacteria are not algae at all, but far from it! Algae are considered eukaryotic and are made up cells that are very different from the cyanobacteria.
​
    Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic organisms that are made up of prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and lack membrane-bound organelles. In contrast, algae are eukaryotes that are made up of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

• Microbes: 3.8 billion years ago (bya)
• Eukarya: 2 
billion years ago (bya)
• Multicellular: 0.5 
billion years ago (bya) 
Picture
​          
    Prokaryotic cells existed from about one-billion years before eukaryotic single-celled organisms evolved. Prokaryotic cells are almost always smaller than eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles and do not have a nucleus. In contrast, eukaryotic cells do have a nucleus and do have membrane-bound organelles.



Bacteria

     Most prokaryotic organisms are bacteria. All bacteria cells contain cytoplasm, a cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane) and genetic material. 
Picture
Illustration Showing the Anatomy of a Typical Bacteria Cell
Picture
Cross-Section of a Bacterial Cell
Prokaryotic cells Do Not Have
  1. membrane-bound organelles
  2. or a true nucleus.

​Prokaryotic cells Do Have
  1. DNA in the form of a single circular chromosome called a plasmid​
  2. and a nucleoid in which the genetic material resides.
Picture
E. Coli Bacteria

Shapes of Bacteria

     Bacteria usually take on only a few different shapes (morphologies) and arrangements. 

   The common morphologies for bacteria cells include coccus, bacillus, spirillum, coccobacillus, vibrio and spirochete. See illustrations below!, 
Picture
The round bacteria cells are called Cocci (plural) or Coccus (singular).
Picture
Rod-shaped bacteria cells are called Bacilli (plural) or Bacillus (singular).

Picture
The short rod-shaped bacteria cells are called Coccobacillum (plural) or Coccobacillus (singular).
Picture
The curved rod-shaped bacteria cells are called Vibrios (plural) or Vibrio (singular).
Picture
Spiral bacteria cells are called Spirilla (plural) or Spirillum (singular)
Picture
Picture
The loose helical spiral-shaped bacteria cells are called Spirochettes (plural) or Spirochette (singular).
   Bacteria cells typically arrange themselves with other bacteria cells to form certain arrangements. Some of the more common arrangements bacteria form will be briefly described here.

     
The arrangements for the round bacteria (cocci) include the coccus the diplococcus, the tetrad, the streptococcus and the staphylococcus.
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The coccus refers to the arrangement of a single coccus. ​
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The diplococcus occurs when 2 cocci arrange themselves side-by-side. ​
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The tetrad describes the arrangement of 4 cocci in the shape of a square. ​
Picture

  Cocci are also commonly seen forming clusters with other cocci. A cluster of cocci is called staphylococcus. ​
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Cocci are also commonly seen forming chains with other cocci. A chain of cocci is called streptococcus

The rod-shaped bacteria also form chains.
​​(See illustrations below!)
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A chain of bacilli is called streptobacillus. 
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A single rod-shaped bacteria is called a bacillus.

THE NUCLEOID

    Prokaryotic cells do not have a true nucleus, but they do have genetic material. The genetic material of prokaryotic cells exists in a region called the NUCLEOID. The nucleoid IS NOT surrounded by a membrane, while the nucleus of eukaryotic cells IS surrounded by a membrane. 
    The genetic material of the nucleoid is very different from the genetic material found in eukaryotic cells. The DNA of prokaryotic cells usually consists of a single circular chromosome. In addition to this single chromosome, many prokaryotic cells also carry a small, circular, segment of double-stranded DNA that is considered extrachromosomal. This piece of extrachromosomal DNA is called a plasmid.
     The DNA of archaea has histones (as do eukaryotes), whereas the DNA of bacteria lack hostones. 
Picture
Illustration of the Nucleoid and the Genetic Material of a Typical Prokaryotic Cell.
Picture

The prokaryotic cell membrane. 

  Prokaryotic cells can be either archaeal cells or bacteria cells. The cell membranes are fundamentally different among the cell belonging to the three domains of life (archaea. bacteria and eukarya).

Archaeal membranes are composed of phospholipids that... 
  • have ether linkages
  • have branched lipid chains (isoprene)
  • are organized into either a bilayer or a monolayer

Bacterial membranes are composed of phospholipids that...
  • have ester linkages. 
  • Unbranched (straight) lipid chains (fatty acids).
  • are always organized into a bilayer
Picture
Picture
 The cell membrane holds proteins that carry out a variety of functions.
  1. Cell-to-cell communication
  2. Sensing environmental conditions
  3. Sensing pathogenic virulence factors.. 

Components of the Cell Membrane
  1. Gycoprotein (carbohydrate + protein) - Stabilizes cell membrane
  2. Integral Membrane Proteins - spans the entire width of the membrane
  3. Surface Protein - protein lies on the outer part of the membrane adjacent to the phospholipids' polar heads)
  4. Cholesterol - Stabilizes the cell membrane 
  5. Glycolipid (carbohydrate + lipid) - Stabilizes cell membrane
  6. Protein Channel - allows selective movement of substances to travel into and/or out of the cell

 

Picture
Anatomy of a Cyanobacterium
        Almose all bacteria cell have a cell wall. The cell wall of bacteria has a unique biochemical makeup. Only bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan (or murein).   The layers of the bacterial cell wall is composed N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) that are woven like a fabric into a protective, strong barrier for the cell. 


Picture
Gram-Negative Bacteria - In gram-negative bacteria, tetrapeptide chains extending from each NAM unit are directly cross-linked. Gram-Positive Bacteria -, In gram-positive bacteria, tetrapeptide chains are linked by pentaglycine cross-bridges.
   Gram-Negative Bacteria - In gram-negative bacteria, tetrapeptide chains extending from each NAM unit are directly cross-linked.

   Gram-Positive Bacteria -, In gram-positive bacteria, tetrapeptide chains are linked by pentaglycine cross-bridges.

​Gram Stain

PictureA Gram stain of mixed Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus ATCC 25923, gram-positive cocci, in purple) and Escherichia coli (E. coli ATCC 11775, gram-negative bacilli, in red), the most common Gram stain reference bacteria.
    Bacteria are categorized as either gram-positive or gram-negative, depending on the composition of their cell wall. A sample of bacteria can be easily identified as either being gram-positive or gram-negative by using a Gram stain.

Target for Antibiotics

   Many antibiotics target peptidoglycan, because it is unique to bacteria. The antibiotic disrupts the cell membrane which leave the bacteria cell vulnerable to osmotic pressure. Crenation or lysis will then occur, killing the bacteria cell. 
Picture
Picture

RIBOSOMES

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     Both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cell contain ribosomes. The function of ribosomes is to provide the location for protein synthesis to take place. However, the ribosomes or prokaryotic cells are located in the cytoplasm and are a different size (70S) than those found in the eukaryotes (80S). S is a unit of measure of size (the Svedberg unit) based on how quickly it forms a precipitate upon centrifugation. A single Svedberg unit is equal to 100 femtoseconds, or 10^13 seconds.

​INCLUSIONS

     Prokaryotic cells contain additional structures called inclusions, that do not exist in eukaryotic cells. These inclusions function to store nutrients within the cell. 

ENDOSPORES

Picture
   Some prokaryotic cells have the ability to undergo a type of dormant state called sporulation. When conditions are unfavorable, the genetic material forms a protective membrane, called an endospore, that surrounds and protects the genome. The DNA lies protected in this dormant state indefinitely, until conditions improve.

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     Bacteria are an integral (and even necessary) part of the human body. It is estimated that the human body itself consists of 10 times more bacteria cells than human cells! That comes to a whopping 100-trillion bacterial cells. The portion of our bodies that consist of these bacterial cells has been coined "the human microbiome".  
   In fact, co-existing with certain bacteria is SO necessary for good heath, that a billion-dollar industry has formed providing these bacteria to consumers in the form of pills labelled "probiotics"!
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Probiotics are healthy bacteria that aid digestion and protect against harmful bacteria
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Picture
     Humans and other animals have a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with many species of bacteria that make their home in the our mouth, nose, throat, and intestines. A mutualistic relationship is beneficial to both organisms involved. In this situation, the bacteria benefit from using the host as a habitat that provides the nutrients bacteria need to survive. The human (or animal) benefits from this relationship, because the 'good' bacteria helps prevent harmful bacterial or fungal infections. ​

Picture
    Bacteria reside on our skin, in our mouth, in our lungs, in our nose, on our eyelashes and in in our eyes!  ​Healthy bacteria in our gut allow for the proper digestion of food, for the movement of waste through the bowels and for proper elimination of waste. Good bacteria help to defend against the invasion of bad bacteria by populating vulnerable areas (such as the mucosa of body cavities) and sequestering the available resources. ​

Picture
Healthy bacteria reside in the vagina that function to regulate the growth of yeast and, thereby, help protect against yeast infections. 


General classes of multicellular bacteria.

​Class
Characteristics
Examples
Filaments
  • Cell differentiation through intracellular signaling,
  • Clonal origin
  •  First known example of multicellularity
Cyanobacteria, Actinomycetes, Chloroflexi, Desulfobulbaceae, Beggiatoa, Thioploc
Aggregates
  • Cell differentiation
  • Developmental program
  • Intercellular signaling
  • Extracellular matrix
  • Clonal or non-clonal
Biofilms and swarms in many specie

MMPs (multicellular magnetotactic prokaryotes)
  • No observed unicellular stage
  • Tight cell-cell junctions
  • Coordinated flagellar movement
  • Cell division by binary fission of entire structure
Candidatus Magnetoglobus multicellularis, Ca.Magnetomorum litorale, Ca. Magnetananas tsingtaoensis, Ca. Magnetomorum tsingtaoroseum, Ca. Magnetananas rongchenensis, Ca. Magnetomorum rongchengroseum
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​The smallest bacteria discovered to date, is the Mycoplsma which measure around  0.2 μm.
Picture
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/M._haemofelis_IP2011.jpg/800px-M._haemofelis_IP2011.jpg mycoplasma
​The largest bacteria discovered to date, is the Thiomargarita namibiensis which measure around  700 μm.
Picture
Thiomargarita namibiensis


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