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    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
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    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
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  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
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      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
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    • dissection of the fetal pig
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    • Portal to the Skeletal system
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    • In-Vitro Fertilization
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    • Genetics of Reproduction
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    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
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    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
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      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
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      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

EPIDEMIOLOGY

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION - EPIDEMIOLOGY
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Principles of Infectious Diseases in Epidemiology 
​What is epidemiology?  How do epidemiologists monitor disease? How does epidemiology assist in controlling the future outbreaks of disease? ​
Definition of Terms:

COLONIZATION - Colonization is when microbes move in and themselves at home in the host. For example, the average human body is made up 37 trillion cells, but we have 10 times that many bacterial cells that have colonized our bodies and call our bodies "home"! So, in addition to our 37 trillion "human" cells, we have what we call our "normal flora." 
  Our normal flora consists of all of the many different kinds of microbes that inhabit our body! We can say that this normal flora are microorganisms that have colonized our bodies. 
Picture
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    The natural flora of our bodies can be found on our skin and in our digestive and reproductive tracts, as well as our eyes, nose, mouth and throat. The other areas of our bodies should remain microbe-free. 

    When we have these microbes (normal flora) in or on our bodies in the places where they are usually found, they do not harm us and in fact often help us stay healthy! We do not consider these areas with colonizing microbes "infections". 

   However, when microbes from one part of the body invade another part of the body where they are usually not found, they can be harmful, or even deadly!
   An "infection" occurs when a microorganism gets into (or onto) a part of the body where it normally is not found.

   All human skin is colonized by  a bacteria called Staphylococcus aureus (sometimes abbreviated as Staph. aureus) about 40% of the time. This bacteria lives on the surface of the skin and is considered part of the "normal flora" of humans. Another way to say this is to say that human skin is "colonized" with Staphylococcus aureus. It is not considered an infection and does not cause harm... as long as it stays on the surface of the skin.  ​
    However, if a person were to cut themselves or get some kind of open wound on their skin, the Staphylococcus aureas has a chance of penetrating through the outer layers of skin and entering the blood stream. At this point, the person is said to have a Staphylococcus aureas infection.
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SEM Image 20,000X Magnification of Staphylococcus aureus
    An infection is defined as the presence of a microorganism in a part of the body where it is normally not found.

   An infectious disease is defined as an infection that causes harm to the host. An infectious disease is when the microbial infection leads to some sort of functional disorder in the host. 

   A pathogen is a microorganism that causes disease. Once Staph aureus enters the blood stream it is pathogenic and can then invade internal organs causing more harm to the host in a condition called toxic shock syndrome,  which can lead to death.
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    Doctors use the signs and symptoms of a disease to determine the disease, the pathogen, and the course of treatment. Since different pathogenic microorganisms have different effects on the human body, knowing the signs and symptoms is vital to the diagnosis.

 Signs vs. Symptoms

   Signs are objective.  This means that the signs of a disease can be determined by observation of an unbiased medical provider or measured by some sort of medical test. For example, bumps on the skin, fever, or a mass on an X-ray would be considered a "sign" of the disease. Healthcare providers can see and measure the degree to which the person is being effected by the illness. More examples would be fever, because it is measurable by a thermometer, and paralysis  is observable and measurable by determining the limitations of normal movement (partial paralysis / complete paralysis).
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  Symptoms are subjective. Healthcare providers must rely on the patient's description when it comes to symptoms, because symptoms cannot be directly observed or measured by anyone other than the patient.  Examples of symptoms can include nausea, head ache, fatigue, loss of appetite, and pain.

  Medical professionals will ask patients to rate their pain (or other symptom) on a scale from 0 to 10. This is called the Wong-Baker Faces pain-rating scale. An alternative method of quantifying pain is measuring skin conductance fluctuations. 

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 What is epidemiology? 

Epidemiology is a science that examines...
  1. the patterns
  2. the causes
  3. and the effects
of disease on the health of a specific population. While epidemiologists study all diseases and not just the diseases caused by microorganisms, we will be focusing our discussion of epidemiology to infectious diseases only.

   Scientists that specialize in the field of epidemiology are called epidemiologists. Epidemiologists have 3 main goals.
  1. ​To identify the factors that cause disease
  2. To identify the factors that transmit disease
  3. To help prevent or reduce future outbreak of disease
    There are 4 stages or phases of an epidemiological study.
  1. Disease Etiology - To determine the disease etiology (etiology = causing agent) is to figure out what pathogen is causing the outbreak of the disease. 
  2. Outbreak Investigation -  To determine how, when, where, and why the outbreak occurred. 
  3. Disease Screening and Surveillance - To determine patterns and predict future outbreaks based on collected data.
  4. Comparisons of Treatment Effects - Clinical trials are performed in efforts to prevent future outbreaks. 
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ETIOLOGY

   The etiology of a disease is the cause of the disease.  Finding the microorganism that causes the disease or the condition in question is extremely important.  The epidemiologist must first determine what type of microorganism is causing the disease. An etiological agent is the microorganism that is responsible for causing the disease. 
Microorganisms that cause diseases can include:
  • viruses
  • bacteria
  • protozoa
  • fungus
  • algae​​
   The more information that the epidemiologist knows about the etiological agent (the disease-causing agent), the more likely they will be able to understand how to control the spread of the disease, as well as how to prevent outbreaks from happening in the future. 
   
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   When epidemiologists identify the microbe involved in the outbreak, they can identify how the disease is being spread. This information is very useful. For example, let's say that a certain disease has been found to be spread from person to person. If this is the case, epidemiologists can potentially find out who that first person was that was infected!  ​​
   The more information that the epidemiologist knows about the etiological agent (the disease-causing agent), the more likely they will be able to understand how to control the spread of the disease, as well as how to prevent outbreaks from happening in the future. 

   When epidemiologists identify the microbe involved in the outbreak, they can identify how the disease is being spread. This information is very useful. 
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How Diseases May be Acquired

  • From Person to Person - When a certain outbreak of a disease has been found to be spread from person to person, epidemiologists can potentially find out who that first person was that was infected. ​
  • Zoonotic Factors -  If the disease is able to be spread from an animal to a person (like rabies) it is a zoonotic disease. Zoonotic diseases are typically diseases that are endemic to animal populations, but are able to be spread to humans upon certain types of contact.

  • ​Arthropod Vectors - Diseases may be spread or transferred through arthropod vectors such as ticks, mosquitoes, fleas, mites, etc.  These are called vectors instead of "factors" because these are living organisms. An example of this is the spread of the disease, malaria. Mosquitoes can carry the pathogenic protozoa, Plasmodium, which can be transferred to humans.  Once the Plasmodium is transferred from mosquitoes onto humans, the Plasmodium can lead to malaria.  So we can use this information by deceasing mosquito populations, wearing protective clothing, etc. 
  • Behavioral Risks / Life-Style Factors - Some disease may be associated with behavioral risks or lifestyle factors.  
Incidence
Incidence is the rate of new (or newly diagnosed) cases of the disease.
Prevalence
Prevalence is the actual number of cases alive, with the disease either during a period of time (period prevalence) or at a particular date in time (point prevalence).

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