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    • Anatomy - CMC Home Page
      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
      • Practical Exam #3
      • Practical Exam #4
      • Practical Exam #5
      • Practical Exam #6
      • Lab Quiz 4
      • Lab Quiz 5
    • Anatomy Basics
      • Intro to Anatomy
      • Medical Terminology
      • A History of Anatomy
      • Levels of Organization
      • Anatomical Positions
      • Anatomical Planes
      • Anatomical Regions
      • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System
  • Home
  • Anatomy
    • Anatomy - CMC Home Page
      • Practical Exam #2 REDEMPTION EXAM!
      • Practical Exam #3
      • Practical Exam #4
      • Practical Exam #5
      • Practical Exam #6
      • Lab Quiz 4
      • Lab Quiz 5
    • Anatomy Basics
      • Intro to Anatomy
      • Medical Terminology
      • A History of Anatomy
      • Levels of Organization
      • Anatomical Positions
      • Anatomical Planes
      • Anatomical Regions
      • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Cells Portal
      • Anatomy of the Cell SAC
      • Membrane Transport
      • The Cell Cycle
      • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
      • BLOOD CELLS
      • mitosis
    • Tissues Portal SAC
      • The Integumentary System
      • Epithelial Tissues
      • Connective Tissue
      • Muscle Tissue
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • Cartilage SAC
    • Organ Systems
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
      • The SKULL ANATOMY
      • the Thoracic Cage
      • the vertebral column
      • The Appendicular Skeleton
      • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
      • joints
    • The Muscular System Portal
      • Muscle Tissue
      • Muscles - Intramuscular Injection Sites - WCU
      • Muscles of the Body - Review
    • The Nervous System
      • Introduction to the Nervous System
      • Nervous Tissue
      • The Brain - Anat
      • The Ear - Sensory Organs
      • The Eye - Sensory Organs
    • THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
    • The Renal System
    • The Respiratory System
    • THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM PORTAL
      • Intro to the Circulatory System
      • THE HEART
      • HEART DISSECTION PHOTO GALLERY
      • THE VESSELS OF BLOOD CIRCULATION
    • Digestive System
    • Animal Dissection (Virtual)
    • dissection of the fetal pig
  • Physiology
    • Homeostasis - Physio
    • Chemical Reactions - Physio
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic - Physio
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC - Physio
    • Chemical Bonds - Physio
    • Metabolism - Physio
    • Portal to the Skeletal system
    • Endocrine and Homeostasis physio
    • Muscle Physiology
    • Blood
    • Cardiovascular System
    • Lymphatic System
    • Respiratory System Physiology
    • Renal System
    • Digestive System
    • Reproductive System
  • CMC Physiology Lab
    • Lab 1 - Surface Area to Volume Ratios
    • Lab 2 - Osmosis
    • Lab 4 - Heart Rate and Barometers
    • Lab 5 - Virtual Neuron Lab
    • Case Study One
  • Anat & Physio
    • The Muscular System Portal
    • The Integumentary System a&p
      • The Epidermis
      • The Dermis
      • The Epidermis rio
      • Connective Tissue
  • Biology of Human Pregnancy
    • Course Calendar - BIO 3070
    • Bio of Pregnancy - SYLLABUS
    • Course Information
    • Evolution of Human Pregnancy
    • History of Human Pregnancy
    • Myths of Pregnancy and Fertility
    • Female Reproductive System
    • The Menstrual Cycle
    • The Male Reproductive System and Male Contraception
    • Fertility and Conception
    • In-Vitro Fertilization
    • Infertility
    • Genetics of Reproduction
    • Prenatal and Maternity Care
    • The Pregnant Body
    • fetal development
    • Development of the Nervous System
    • Stages of Labor
    • Postpartum Issues
    • Twins
  • Chemistry
    • pH Lab
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
      • VOLCANO LAB
    • Volcano Project
  • College/Life Skills
    • Online Professionalism
    • Advising Resources
    • INTERVIEW SKILLS AND RESUME WRITING
    • DIVERSITY
    • CAMPUS EVENTS
      • Predation
    • Time Management
  • Environmental Science
    • MIDTERM 2 STUDY GUIDE
    • Exam 2 Study Guide
    • ENVS 105 Home Page
      • Midterm 3 Study Guide Population Ecology
      • Ecology II - Communities and Ecosystems
      • Module 1 Assignments
      • Module 2 Assignments
    • Inrtoduction to ENV SCI
    • Historical Perspective of ​Environmental Science
    • Biomes
    • FOOD CHAIN and FOOD WEB
    • Biogeochemical Recycling
    • Evolution - Our Beginning
    • Genetic Inheritance
    • Evolution: How Populations Change over Time
    • Symbiosis
    • Population Ecology
    • Competition in Nature
    • Herbivory
    • Niches
    • Fossil Fuels
  • Environmental Biology Laboratory
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • Ecological Roles of Living Organisms
      • The Basics
      • Bacteria - Ecological Roles
      • Protists - Ecological Roles
      • Fungus - Ecological Roles
      • Plantae and Animalia - Ecological Roles
    • Virtual FIELD TRIP TO THE RIO HONDO COLLEGE ​WILDLIFE SANCTUARY - Adaptations to Dry Climates
    • Microscopic Plant Adaptations
    • Natural Selection
    • GROWTH CURVES
    • SOILS AND GROUNDWATER
    • LC50 and LD50
    • How to Make a Solar Water Heater
    • WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS
  • General Biology
    • Characteristics of Life
    • Chemistry of Life - Inorganic
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Introduction to The Cell
    • Photosynthesis and cellular Respiration
    • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
    • The Cell Cycle
    • REGULATION of The Cell Cycle
    • Mitosis
    • Meiosis
    • The Structure of DNA
    • Evolution
  • General Biology Laboratory
    • GENERAL BIOLOGY 101 LABORATORY HOME PAGE
      • Enzymes
      • OSMOSIS LAB
      • Lab 1 - Bacteria, Protista and Fungi
      • Lab 2 - Plantae and Animalia
      • Photosynthesis
      • Lab 5 - Introduction to Cells
      • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
      • Lab 7 - Membrane Transport
      • Lab 8 - Enzymes
      • Lab 9 - Photosynthesis
      • Lab 10 Fermentation, Aerobic Cellular Respiration and Associated Major Organ Systems
    • GENERAL BIO 1110L Labs
      • lab 2 - CELLS - BIO 111L
      • lab 3 - DIFFUSION and OSMOSIS - BIO 111L
      • lab 4 - The Circulatory System - BIO 111L
      • lab 6 - Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
      • lab 7 - Reproduction - BIO 111L
      • DNA, GENES AND GENETIC INHERITANCE
      • lab 9 - GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
      • lab 10 - ADAPTATIONS - BIO 111L
      • lab 11 - ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
  • Human Biology
    • A History of Human Biology
    • Levels of Organization
    • The Chemistry of Cells - ORGANIC
    • Cells
    • Cartilage SAC
    • BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
  • Human Biology Lab
    • Testing for Sugar, Starch and Proteins
    • Osmosis, Diffusion and Filtration
    • buffers
    • OSMOSIS LAB
    • Anatomical Planes
    • Body Cavities and Membranes
    • Anatomical Positions
    • The Appendicular Skeleton
    • The SKULL
    • the Thoracic Cage
    • the vertebral column
  • Human Sexuality
    • Course Information
    • Course Calendar
    • Lesson 1 - Introduction to Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 2 - Genetic Inheritance of Human Sexuality
    • Lesson 3 - The Male Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 4 - The Female Reproductive Tract
    • Lesson 5 - The Menstrual Cycle
    • Midterm Exam Study Guide
    • Lesson 6 - Fetal Development and Sexual Differentiation
    • Lesson 7 - Disorders of Sexual Development
    • Lesson 8 - Gender Identity and Sexual Attraction
    • Lesson 9 - Fetishism
    • Lesson 10 - Sexuality Throughout the World
    • ​Lesson 11 - Sexuality Through the Ages
    • Lesson 12 - Sexual Harassment, Coercion and Violence
    • Final Exam Study Guide
  • Microbiology PORTAL
    • Microbiology - CPP
      • ​Intro to Microorganisms
      • Diseases
      • EPIDEMIOLOGY
      • HOST DEFENSES
      • PATHOGENICITY
      • History of Microbiology
      • Levels of Organization cpp
      • Bacteria versus Archaea
      • Intro. to Bacteria
      • Viruses and Prions
      • Microbial Genetics
      • Microbial Nutrition and Growth
        • Nutritional Categories
        • Microbial Metabolism
        • CONTROL OF BACTERIA GROWTH AND ANTIBIOTICS
      • Eukaryotic Organisms
      • Archaeal Diversity
      • Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
      • Bacteria vs Archaeal Structures
      • Taxonomic Classifications
      • Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotic Cells
      • MIC- CPP Course Calendar
    • Cell Theory
    • Chemistry of Life
      • Chemical Bonds
      • Chemical Reactions
    • Biofilms
    • Definition of Terms
  • Microbiology Laboratory
    • Cell Culture and Inoculations
    • aseptic technique
    • WET MOUNT
    • Streak Plate
    • Mannitol salt agar (MSA) Test
    • Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB)
    • Blood Agar
    • Dilution Series and Calculations
    • Phage Plaque Assay
    • MICROBIOLOGY UNKNOWN LAB
    • Microbiology Lab -study guide exam one
    • Ex 2 - Microorganisms
    • EX 3 - aseptic technique
    • Ex 4 - Smear Prep
    • Ex 5 - Simple Stains
    • Ex 6 - Negative Staining
    • Ex 8 - Gram Stain
    • Ex 9 - Acid-Fast Stain
    • Ex 10 - Endospore Stain
    • Ex 11 - Motility Test
    • ex 12 -​ Pure culture technique
    • ex 13 - UV Radiation
    • Ex 14 - Enumeration of Bacteria : Standard Plate Count
    • ex - 15 Effects of Temperature on Growth
    • ex 16 - Hand-washing
    • ex 17 - pH and microbial growth
    • ex 18 - Evaluation of Antiseptics
    • ex 19 - Antibiotic Sensitivity : Kirby-Bauer Method
  • HISTOTECHNOLOGY
  • The Brain
  • The Brain
  • The Structure of DNA
  • Contact
  • FUN ZONE
    • GAMES
    • Video Vault
    • Population Ecology - ACTIVITY
    • The Carbon Cycle - ACTIVITY
    • Evolution - ACTIVITY
    • The Cell Game
    • SYMBIOSIS ACTIVITY
    • THE LORAX ACTIVITY
    • Brittney the Kidney
    • From Soup to Poop
    • MITOSIS - THE NURSERY RHYME
    • Verne the Sperm and friends
      • Verne the Sperm pg1
        • Verne the Sperm pg2
        • Verne the Sperm pg3
        • Verne the Sperm pg4
        • Verne the Sperm pg5
  • Lab 6 - The Chemistry of Cells
  • A History of Anatomy
  • List of Pages
    • Microscopes
  • Cell Membranes and Osmosis
  • Chemistry of Life
  • Muscle Movements
  • The Muscles of the Head, Trunk and Shoulders
  • The Muscles of the Limbs
  • Nervous Tissue
  • The Brain - Anat and Physiology
  • Instructions for Taking BIO 3070
  • MTH 121 Algebra A - Course Schedule and Info
  • Laboratory Calendar CMC Spring 2019
  • Genetics Lab
  • Chemistry and Conversions Lab
  • Digestion and Enzymes Lab
  • Endocrine and Homeostasis Lab
  • Muscles and Reflexes Lab
  • Sensory Lab
  • Immunohistochemistry
  • Blood Lab
  • Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Electrocardiogram Lab
  • Respiratory Lab
  • Lab 11 Renal Lab
  • Blood Typing Game
  • Body Systems Interactive
  • Ch 9 - The Central Nervous System
  • Ch 10 - Sensory Systems
  • Neuron Virtual Laboratory
  • Virtual Eye Lab
  • Virtual pH Lab
  • Chemical Bonds Virtual Lab
  • Beer's Law Virtual Lab
  • Build-an-Atom Virtual Lab
  • Diffusion Virtual Lab
  • Ohm's Law Virtual Lab
  • New Page
  • Ch 8 - Nervous System

the brain

Go to the Nervous Tissue Page
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The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system includes all of the neurons that lie outside of the central nervous system. 

   Your brain weighs only 3 or 4 pounds and is approximately the size of your two fists placed together. This small organ controls all of the functions of your body. It senses the outside world and interprets its meaning. It sends the commands that causes your body to act and to react. Your intelligence, your memories, your emotions, your sense of humor, your personality and beliefs; the essence of YOU, is contained within this small organ you could hold in your hands. 
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   The brain is separated into its major structures; the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. 
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Sheep Brain
   The cerebellum is separated into 2 hemispheres; the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. Interestingly, all of language processing, including speech and comprehension, lie exclusively in regions of the left hemisphere. The left hemisphere also holds regions used in mathematical concepts, logic, and linear thinking. The right hemisphere has regions that are used in creative thinking, arts, and music. 
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  The right and left hemispheres are separated by the Great Longitudinal Fissure. The right and left hemispheres communicate to one another through a structure called the ​corpus callosum. 
   
   As hard as it to believe that the two hemispheres of the brain specialize in such different areas, it is supported by a multitude of evidence. ​
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 For example, the video below shows a patient that has had the connection between the left and right hemispheres cut. The area of the brain that connects the left and right hemispheres is called the corpus callosum. This structure was cut during a surgical procedure to treat this patient's severe uncontrolled epilepsy.  In this patient, the 2 hemispheres are disconnected from each other and work independently from each other. The patient is shown pictures to one eye at a time in a part of the visual field that projects exclusively to either the right or to the left hemisphere. 

   When the patient, 'Joe", is shown a picture of a hammer to his right hemisphere, Joe is unaware that he has been shown anything. However, when the doctor asks the patient to draw "whatever comes to mind" using the left hand (because the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body) he draws a hammer. When the doctor asks what he has drawn, the left hemisphere responds "a hammer". When the doctor asks the patient why he drew a hammer, the patient's left hemisphere responds with "I don't know".
   The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of spinal nerves that branch from the spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain. The PNS includes the autonomic nervous system, which controls vital functions such as breathing, digestion, heart rate, and secretion of hormones.
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Anatomy of the Sheep Brain

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Cerebral Hemispheres
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Lobes of the Brain - Superior View
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Fissures of the Brain
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Lobes of the Brain - Lateral View

Gross Anatomy of the Brain

Main Structures of Sheep Brain
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    The brain includes the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brain stem. The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain and it is divided into two hemispheres (the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere) that are separated by a deep groove called the longitudinal fissure.
The cerebrum is separated from the cerebrum by a deep groove called the transverse fissure. ​
    Behind the cerebrum, a mass that exists that resembles a "little brain". This is the cerebellum. The word cerebellum is Latin for "little brain". This area of the brain is important for motor coordination and hand-eye coordination. 
    The outer layer of the cerebrum is covered with a series of characteristic hills and grooves. This outer portion of the cerebrum is referred to as the cerebral cortex. The hills are called 'gyri' and the grooves are called 'sulci'. ​
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    The brain form elongated structure of the medulla oblongata which tapers down to form the brain stem. These areas are collectively referred to as the hind brain and are responsible for lower brain functions of the autonomic nervous system, which includes the regulation of homeostatic body functions (heart rate, blood pressure, temperature regulation). 
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Human Brain
Function of Key Areas of the Brain
  • Prefrontal Cortex - Highest-Level Critical Thinking Skills
  • Frontal Lobe - Predicting Outcomes, Empathy, Planning and Speech
  • The Limbic System - Emotion and Addiction Centers of the Brain
  • The Somatosensory Cortex - Processes Sensory Information 
  • The Motor Cortex - Processes Motor Commands Before They Are Sent to Peripheral Nervous System (part of the parietal lobe). 
  • The Parietal Lobe - Spatial Reasoning, Memory, Motor Initiation and Sensory Information Integration and Interpretation of Meaning
  • The Occipital Lobe - Processes Visual Information
  • The Cerebellum - Coordination
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Human Brain
     
​    Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is separated into 4 regions called lobes. The 
frontal lobes lie at the anterior (rostral or ventral) portion of the cerebrum. This area of the brain is more pronounced in humans than other animals. This area of the brain is dedicated to higher-level thinking such as being able to predict outcomes of specific actions. In humans, this area seems to hold much of our personality. The parietal lobes are important for spatial skills and tactile sense processing. The temporal lobes are located laterally on the cerebrum and are important for processing sound information. The occipital lobes are located at the back of the cerebrum and process information related to sight.
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Anatomical Features of Mid-Sagittal Section of Sheep Brain

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Anatomical structures of sheep brain - sagittal section.
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Lateral, third and fourth ventricles - sagittal section of sheep brain.
Description of Mid-Sagittal Anatomical Features of the Brain
 Corpus Callosum -  The right and left hemispheres of the cerebrum are connected by the corpus callosum. In severe cases of epilepsy, some patients (referred to as "split-brain" patients, have their corpus callosum cut in order to stop the spread of seizures. 
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White and Gray Matter - Gray matter refers to the outer regions of the brain that appear relatively darker than the interior (deeper) portions of the brain. This area appears darker, because these area contain the cell bodies of the neurons.
    White matter refers to the inner regions of the brain that appear relatively lighter than the exterior (superficial) portions of the brain. The lighter appearance is due to the presence of myelinated axons of neurons.

The Pineal Gland (Pineal Body) - The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland that functions to produce the hormone melatonin, which regulates your sleep-wake cycles. The pineal gland gets its name from its "pine cone-like" appearance.  
Thalamus - The thalamus gets its name from the Greek word meaning "chamber". The thalamus is the main relay center for motor and sensory information. This area is important for integrating neuronal signals which is important in creating meaningful perceptions. The thalamus is also important for regulating your level of consciousness and level of alertness.  
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Hypothalamus - The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus. The prefix 'hypo-' means 'below', so its name translates as "below thalamus". The hypothalamus is responsible for regulating metabolic processes including the perception of hunger and the physical uptake of nutrients.  
   The hypothalamus regulates body temperature, hunger/thirst, alertness and sleep-wake cycles (circadian rhythms). ​
Superior Colliculus - Orients eye and head movement toward light stimulus. The superior colliculus allows you to track movements with your eyes. 
Inferior Colliculus - Orients the eyes and head towards sound stimuli, including the startle response and vestibulo-ocular reflex. Processes auditory information and localization.
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Mammillary Bodies - Mammillary bodies are located at the base of the brain at the ends of the anterior arches of the fornix.
Mammillary bodies are important for spatial memory and recalling events. 
The Fornix - "Fornix" comes from the Latin word for "arch". The fornix is an arched (C-shaped) bundle of nerve fibers in the brain that acts as the major output tract of the hippocampus. It may play a role in recall and recognition memory. 

The Brain Stem - The brain stem includes the midbrain, the pons and the medulla oblongata

The Midbrain - The midbrain coordinates the perceptions of sight and sound with motor control of the eyes head and neck. The midbrain also regulates alertness, sleep-wake cycles, and body temperature.

The Pons - The pons controls sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture. 

The Medulla Oblongata - The medulla oblongata controls the autonomic (involuntary) functions of vomiting,  sneezing, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure. 
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IMAGE courtesy of By OpenStax - https://cnx.org/contents/FPtK1zmh@8.25:fEI3C8Ot@10/Preface, CC BY 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30147954

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Cranial Nerves

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Clinical Examination of the Cranial Nerves

Cranial nerves are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain or brain stem. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck. In contrast, spinal nerves are the nerves that emerge from the spinal cord and project to the body. 
​
  1. Cranial Nerve I - Olfactory Nerve = Sense of Smell (Olfaction).​
  2. Cranial Nerve II - Optic Nerve = Sense of Sight
  3. ​Cranial Nerves III, IV and VI = The oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI) coordinate eye movement. Damage to nerves III, IV, or VI may affect the movement of the eyeball (globe). 
  4. Cranial Nerve V - The trigeminal nerve (V).  In charge of sensation to the skin of the face and control the muscles of mastication (chewing). 
  5. Cranial Nerve VII - Facial Nerve (VII) - In charge of facial expression. A very common and generally temporary facial palsy is known as Bell's palsy is caused by lesion of the facial nerve. 
  6. Cranial Nerve VIII -  Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)  - Responsible for hearing and balance. Damage can cause nystagmus.
  7. Cranial Nerve IX - Glossopharyngeal nerve - responsible for oral sensation, taste, and salivation. 
  8. Cranial Nerve X - Vagus nerve (X) - Controls heart rate and blood pressure. 
  9. Cranial Nerve XI - Accessory Nerve - Responsible for shoulder elevation and head-turning. 
  10. Cranial Nerve XII - Hypoglossal Nerve - Responsible for tongue movement. 

Sheep Brain Demonstration


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